Marketing: Traditional, Digital and Integrated

By Luke Ike

This book provides a complete package of the fundamentals of marketing that is one of a kind in the market. The book delivers a one-stop package that will enable the reader to gain total access to knowledge and understanding of all marketing principles (traditional, digital, and integrated marketing). It is critical for delivering the best marketing practices and performances in todays very competitive marketing environment.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris UK
• Release date: Jun 13, 2018
• ISBN: 9781543490923

Luke Ike

Dr Luke Ike is a lecturer and management consultant. He obtained his MSc degree in Business Administration from the University of Innsbruck, Austria Europe, and PhD degree in Business Administration from the University of Economics and Business Administration Vienna, Austria Europe. He completed post graduate studies in Ethnic and Minority Small Business Management at the London Guildhall University, United Kingdom, (now London Metropolitan University). He also obtained Post Graduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) from University of Greenwich, London, United Kingdom. Dr Luke Ike is the founder and CEO of COLNNECT Ltd Centre for Education, Management Studies and Consultancy, London, United Kingdom. He is also the author of many classic business textbooks such as - Management (Principles & Practices), Risk Management & Captive Insurance, International Management (Principles & Practices), Strategic Management (Concepts & Practices), International Business (Environments & Operations), Business Strategy (An Introduction), Entrepreneurship (Initiating and Developing a New Venture), Marketing (Traditional, Digital and Integrated). ContactE-mail:[e-mail]

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Copyright © 2018 by Luke Ike.

ISBN:                Softcover                           978-1-5434-9093-0

                          eBook                                978-1-5434-9092-3

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Rev. date: 06/12/2018

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CONTENTS

Introduction To The Book

PART 1

AN INTRODUCTION TO TRADITIONAL MARKETING

Introduction

Chapter 1 Understanding The Nature And Meaning Of Marketing

1.1 Marketing - Definitions

1.2 Marketing as A Science and An Art

1.3 Some Key Marketing Concepts

Further reading

Chapter 2 Marketing Management And Philosophies

2.1 Marketing Management

2.1.1 Introduction

2.1.2 Demand management

2.1.3 Managing profitable customer relationships

2.1.4 Managing marketing structures

2.2 Marketing Management Philosophies

2.2.1 Introduction

2.2.2 The production concept

2.2.3 The product concept

2.2.4 The selling concept

2.2.5 The marketing concept

2.2.6 Assets led marketing

2.2.7 The social marketing concept

2.2.8 The strategic marketing concept

Further reading

Chapter 3 Strategic Planning, Marketing Process, And Ethics

3.1 Strategic Planning

3.1.1 Introduction

3.1.2 Marketing’s role in strategic planning

3.2 The Marketing Process

3.2.1 Introduction

3.2.3 Managing the Marketing Effort (The marketing management process)

3.3 The Marketing Plan

3.3.1 Introduction

3.3.2 Contents of the marketing Plan

3.4 Ethics in Marketing

Further reading

Chapter 4 The Marketing Micro- Environment

4.1 Introduction

4.2 The Internal Marketing Environment - The Company

Further reading

Chapter 5 The Marketing Macro- Environment

5.1 Introduction

5.2 The Macro Environmental Factors

5.3 Marketing Response to Environment

Further reading

Chapter 6 Understanding Customers

6.1 Introduction

6.2 The Marketing Information System (MIS)

6.2.1 Introduction

6.2.2 Marketing Research

6.2.2.1 Introduction

6.2.2.2 The Marketing Research Process

6.2.2. 3 the Marketing Research Brief and Proposal

Further reading

Chapter 7 Consumer Markets And Cunsumer Buyer Behaviour

7.1 Consumer Market and Consumer Buyer Behaviour

7.1.1 Model of Consumer Behaviour

7.1.2 Understanding Components of Model of Consumer Behaviour

Further reading

Chapter 8 Business Market And Business Buyer Behavior

8.1.1 Introduction

8.1.2 Characteristics of Business Markets

8.2 The Business Buyer Behaviour

8.2.1 Model of Business Buyer Behaviour

8.2.2 Understanding Components of Model of Business Buyer Behaviour

Further reading

Chapter 9 Measuring And Forecasting Demand

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Measuring Current Market Demand

9.3 Forecasting Future Demand

Further reading

Chapter 10 Market Segmentation, Targeting And Positioning For Competitive Advantage

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Market Segmentation

10.2.1 Introduction

10.2.2 Requirement for Effective Segmentation

10.2.3 Segmenting Consumer Market

10.2.4 Segmenting Business Market

10.3 Market Targeting

10.4 Market Positioning

Further reading

Chapter 11 The Marketing Mix

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Product Policies

11.2.1 Product- Definition

11.2.2 Product Levels

11.2.3 Product Classifications

11.2.4 Product Decisions

11.2.4.1 Individual Product Decisions

11.2.4.3 Product Mix Decisions

11.2.5 New Product Development

11.2.5.1 New Product Development Process

11.2.6 Product Life Cycle (PLC)

11.3 Pricing Policies

11.3.1 Price - Definition

11.3.2 Factors Affecting Pricing

11.3.2.1 Introduction

11.3.2.2 Internal factors affecting price decisions

11.3.2.3 External factors affecting price decisions

11.3.3 Pricing Methods

11.3.4 Pricing Strategies

11.4 Distribution Policies

11.4.1 Introduction

11.4.2 Distribution Channel

11.4.2.1 Introduction

11.4.2.2 Distribution Channel Functions

11.4.2.3 Channel Levels

11.4.3 Retailing

11.4 3 2 Non -store retailing

11.4.3.3 Retail marketing decisions

11.4.4 Wholesaling

11.4.5 Channel Organisation

11.4.5.1 Introduction

11.4.5.2 Channel design

11.4.5.3 Channel Management

11.5 Promotion or Communication Policies

11.5.1 Introduction

11.5.2 The Communication Process

11.5.3 Developing Effective Marketing Communication

11.5.4 Understanding Individual Promotion Mix

11.5.4.1 Introduction

11.5.4.2 Advertising

11.5.4.3 Sales Promotion

11.5.4.4 Personal Selling

11.5.4.5 Public Relations (PR)

11.5.4.6 Direct Marketing

Further reading

Chapter 12 Customer Value, Satisfaction And Relationship Building

12.1 Customer Value

12.2 Customer Satisfaction

12.3 Delivering Customer Value and Satisfaction

12.4 Customer Relationship and Total Quality Management (TQM)

Further reading

Chapter 13 Creating And Sustaining Competitive Advantage

13.1 Competitive Advantage

13.2 Competitive Marketing Strategies

13.3 Assessing Competitive Advantage

13.4 Sustaining Competitive Advantage

Further reading

Chapter 14 The Marketing Of Services

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Nature and Characteristics of Service

14.3 Marketing Mix for Services

14.4 Marketing Strategies for Service Firms

Further reading

PART 2

DIGITAL MARKETING

Chapter 15 Understanding Digital Marketing

15.1 Digital marketing – Definition

15.2 The Digital Consumer Behaviour

15.3 The Digital Marketing Toolbox

Further reading

Chapter 16 Digital Marketing Planning And Tools

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Digital Marketing Planning

16.2.1 The Digital Marketing Planning Process

Further reading

Chapter 17 The Digital Marketing Mix

17.1 Digital Marketing 4Ps

17.2 The 4Ps, 7Ps & 5 Is

17.3 Digital Public Relations (PR)

Further reading

PART 3

INTEGRATED MARKETING

Chapter 18 Understanding Integrated Marketing

18.1 Integrated Marketing - Introduction

18.2 Integrated Marketing Communication

18.3 Integrated Digital Marketing

18.4 Integrated Direct Marketing

Further reading

References

AKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This book is dedicated to the memory of my beloved father Hyacinth, my beloved mother Eunice and my beloved sister Philomena.

Luke Ike

INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK

This book is about marketing fundamentals– traditional, digital and integrated.

Traditional marketing here refers to basic or fundamental marketing principles that have been in use by marketing practitioners for years and has a proven success. It is the most recognizable type of marketing principles that we read, see and hear every day, employed by nearly every company today, and in the past. Traditional marketing usually relies on traditional marketing techniques and physical materials such as print materials (e.g newspapers magazines, billboards, flyers, etc) to attract customers.

While many businesses use traditional marketing methods to attract customers, others have added or completely replaced traditional marketing with new or innovative marketing tactics now described as digital marketing often revolving around the internet.

While this newer marketing method do work and can increase a company’s client base, completely replacing traditional marketing with the new marketing techniques can prove dangerous. Supplementing traditional marketing with digital marketing method is the preferred option for interacting and reaching local and international customers or target audience easily and speeding. Digital marketing is also cost effective (cheaper than traditional), and data and results are easily recorded. Digital marketing has also become popular because any business can take the advantage regardless of size.

In addition, many successful firms are now taking digital marketing approach further to include integrated marketing -that occurs when all company’s departments work together to serve the customer’s interest. This includes the use of both traditional and digital marketing to achieve marketing performance. They are focusing on marketing programme design to build closer relationship with consumers through integrated marketing to achieve overall marketing that delivers desired market results. This marketing approach has become very popular because marketers can emphasise the very important role of customer service personnel as front-liners to satisfy customer needs, and delivering marketing demands of today’s marketing world.

The book is written and structured in a way that will enable the reader gain total access to knowledge and understanding of all marketing principles (traditional, digital and integrated marketing) essential for today’s marketing world. The aim is to impact skills and knowledge on traditional, digital and integrated marketing to students of marketing and those interested in the subject area.

This book is divided into 3 parts to reflect its purpose. Part 1 of this book is essentially, the foundation part to understanding of traditional marketing principles and practices. Part 2 provides the much needed information on digital marketing and its applications in today’s market place. Part 3 introduces integrated marketing and its significance to marketing performance in today’s’ fast changing marketing environment.

PART 1

AN INTRODUCTION TO TRADITIONAL MARKETING

INTRODUCTION

As already introduced, traditional marketing here refers to basic or fundamental marketing principles that have been in use by marketing practitioners for years. It is the most recognizable type of marketing principles that we read, see and hear every day, employed by nearly every company today, and in the past.

Traditional marketing has its benefits and limitations.

In terms of benefits it is clear that the approach has a high success rate and is proven, many feel it is easy to understand since it is usually associated with physical materials than digital marketing, and is more real to the brain, materials can be kept and target audience can have hard copy materials which they can read.

In terms of limitations, traditional marketing methods only allows very little interaction between the medium used and customers, some promotion mix like print media or radio advert can be very costly, and result of traditional marketing strategy cannot be easily measured.

Despite its limitations, it is important to recognise that traditional marketing principles are the essential foundation for the understanding and application of digital and integrated marketing.

Part 1 of this book introduces and explains in details, traditional marketing principles and practices in the market place - the basic marketing principles.

CHAPTER 1

UNDERSTANDING THE NATURE AND MEANING OF MARKETING

Aim

To introduce the nature and meaning of marketing.

Objectives

After studying this chapter you should be able to:

• Understand the meaning of marketing.

• Describe marketing in terms of a science and an art.

• Outline and explain key marketing concepts.

1.1 Marketing - Definitions

Customer needs are the starting point of all marketing and there are many definitions of marketing put forward in the literature by institutions and scholars of marketing that generally revolve around the primacy of customers as part of an exchange process.

The British Institute of Marketing defined marketing as the management process involved in identifying, anticipating and satisfying consumer requirement profitably.

Kotler, one of the leading scholars in marketing thoughts defined marketing as a social and managerial process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need and want through creating and exchanging products and value with others (Kotler 2006).

Other general statements used to describe marketing include:

✓ Marketing is about creating customer value and satisfaction.

✓ Today’s marketing is about satisfying customer needs.

✓ Marketing is buying and selling.

✓ Marketing is advertising.

There are features in these definitions and general statements that need to be explained:

• Consumers are of vital importance in marketing - a product has a far greater chance for being a success if it satisfies customers’ needs. Marketing must be aimed at finding out what these needs are and making sure that products and services meet them.

• Marketing is a process - it does not have to start and end but ongoing all the time, as marketers must be prepared to respond to changes that take place in marketing environment.

• Marketing is not just about selling - it is more than that. In fact the aim of marketing is to make selling unnecessary so that products and services can sell themselves.

• Marketing and advertising are not the same – advertising is an essential part of marketing communication or promotion.

• Many businesses regard profit making as their main objective. Marketing must therefore satisfy consumer wants profitably for the business to continue to survive and grow.

Marketing involves building relationship with customers to optimise customer satisfaction. Successful firms do not see marketing as a mere functional activity of the firm, rather as a business philosophy (a way of thinking - a way of thinking of how to satisfy customers’ needs, or general attitude that acts as guiding principles for business behaviour). This is because marketing affects all aspects of a business, cutting across departments, and guides the entire organisation. This marketing philosophy calls for everyone in an organisation to (think customer). You cannot tell who is in the marketing department. Everyone in the organisation has to make decisions based on the impact on the customer.

The marketing department can not accomplish the goals of marketing by itself. It must team up closely with other business departments and partner with other organisations throughout the value and delivery systems to provide superior value to customers. The values of marketing as a business philosophy are instilled in all employees, and should influence their behaviour. In this way it is argued that an organisation best prepares itself to achieve competitive advantage in the marketplace and then works to maintain this advantage by manipulating the controllable functions of marketing within the largely uncontrollable marketing environment.

A good example of an organisation that has shown sound marketing philosophy is the Home Depot, the giant do-it- yourself (DIY) home improvement chain. The reason; Home depot is more than just customer driven- it is customer obsessed. All of their staff understands what the holy Grid is- it is not the bottom line, it is almost blind passionate commitment to taking care of customers. Home Depot provides more than the right product at the right time and at the right prices, but the beat part of shopping at Home Depot is the high quality of its customer services. The company goes to great lengths to learn about and understand their customers’ needs and demands. They analyse customer complaint, inquiry, warranty, and service data, they train sales men to be on the lookout for unfulfilled customer needs, all levels of management stay close to customers in an ongoing effort to understand their needs and wants. Another good example is the Wal-Mart retail chain where executives spend two days each week visiting stores and mingling with customers. Also at Disney World, at least once a week every manager spends a day touring the park.

It is important to recognise here that marketing is used not only by manufacturing companies, wholesalers, and retailers, but by all kinds of individuals and organisations.

1.2 Marketing as A Science and An Art

Introduction

The question of whether marketing is a science or an art cannot be adequately answered without a clear understanding of the basic nature and procedures of science and the fundamentals of an art, and the relationship between both.

➢ Marketing as a science

Science from the Latin scientia meaning knowledge is a systematic enterprise that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable explanation and predictions about the universe.

What makes a study scientific is the methodology. Natural and social science theories and models are built up through scientific methods.

Marketing is not a natural science but is generally described in many literatures as a social science. A social science is a subject which is concerned with human behaviour which is the case with marketing and many of the social scientific theories and models (including for instance, politics, sociology as well as economics) are applicable to marketing activities.

Marketing as a social sciences, differs from natural sciences in its limitations. The most obvious limitation experienced by the marketer as a social scientist is that he/ she cannot test hypothesis by laboratory experiment. The marketer’s laboratory is human society.

Also, natural scientist in their laboratories can hold other things constant, while they study the effects which changes in X have on Y.

Marketers on their side cannot hold other thins constant in the laboratory as they deal with the real world (in terms of observing human behaviour) - they cannot vary the variable in the real world (e.g consumer demand, or money in the economy), hold everything else in constant, and then see what happens. What they can do is to assume other things remain constant. That is why they use the phrase if other things remain equal or the Latin equivalent CETERIS PARIBUS. The predictions of marketing theory must be tested against development in the real world.

Academics and researchers are more likely to believe that marketing is, or has the potential of being a science and attempts to study marketing empirically using scientific framework of natural science have found favour with followers of the positivist school.

The positivist approach holds that from observation of the real world, it is possible to deduct models which are of general applicability. On this basis, marketing models (e.g the model of consumer behaviour) have been developed to predict consumer behaviour, the profitability of retail locations, and price- volume relationships, among others.

Most marketers believe that marketing will be worthy of the title of science as long as marketing do not concentrate on borrowing theories from other disciplines without validating them, but instead concentrate on building up theories from observation and measurement of raw data.

➢ Marketing as an art

Marketing could be seen as an art because many marketing skills cannot only be learned from a textbook.

Marketing is an art because it takes practice just like Golf, Tennis or Volley ball to acquire it. Studying a book helps but is not enough.

Many marketing skills involve the human skills, technical skills and in some extent the conceptual skills and these take practice and are learned more through experience.

The scientific approach to marketing planning has a tendency to minimise risks, yet many major business success have been based on entrepreneurs using their own judgement in preference to that of their professional advisers.

➢ Marketing as a combination of art and science

Marketing could also be described as both art and a science. It has to be seen as a combination of art and science.

Treating it excessively as an art has the danger that it can lead to decisions which are purely thought through in terms of only cause and effect. Also emphasising the scientific approach can lead to a company losing sight of the holistic perception of its customers

But marketing knowledge can be acquired through systematic research and can be conveyed through teaching and textbooks, as well as through experience and creativity.

There is a further argument that creativity (art) combined with scientific approach is essential for innovation.

Successful firms always seek to use science and creativity approach in a complementary manner to achieve marketing performance in creating values and satisfaction.

1.3 Some Key Marketing Concepts

A number of key concepts form the basis for understanding the basic principles of marketing. These concepts go into the heart of marketing philosophy. They include the concept of needs, wants, customer satisfaction, exchange, relationship marketing, transaction, and markets, explained here for better understanding.

➢ Needs

Human need is expected to be the starting-point for all marketing activity. It is identified as the most basic concept underlying marketing since consumers are usually motivated by the desires to satisfy complex needs.

A human need could be described as the state of felt deprivation, a basic part of the human make up. When a need is not satisfied, a person will try to reduce the need or look for an object that will satisfy it. Humans have many complex needs which could be:

✓ Physical needs - for food, clothing, warmth and safety.

✓ Social needs - for belonging and affection.

✓ Individual needs - for knowledge and self expression.

These needs are not invented by marketers but are natural.

➢ Wants

Needs are shaped into wants.

Wants are described in terms of objects that will satisfy needs. They could also be described as the forms taken by human needs in terms of object that will satisfy needs.

Consumers have unlimited wants but limited resources. Thus they want to choose products that provide the most value and satisfaction for their money. These wants when backed by buying power becomes demands. It is assumed that as a society evolves the wants of the members expand.

Outstanding marketing firms go to great length to learn about and understand their customer needs, wants and demand. They train employees at all levels stay close to customers in an ongoing effort to understand their needs and wants.

Understanding customer needs and wants in detail help to provide important input for designing, creating and delivering customer value and satisfaction bearing in mind that consumers usually view products as bundles of benefits and choose products that give them the best bundle for their money.

➢ Demand

In marketing demand is usually described as human wants that are backed by buying power- ability o pay for the products or services…

Human beings naturally are bound to have unlimited wants but their buying power is restricted by limited resources. Therefore, they have no choice but to choose products that produce most value satisfaction for their limited resources, in terms of the money available or at their disposal.

➢ Exchange

In marketing, the concept of exchange is the act of obtaining a desired object from someone by offering something in return.

Marketing occurs when people decide to satisfy needs and wants through the process of exchange.

➢ Transaction

In marketing, transaction involves a trade between two parties that includes at least two things of value, agreed upon conditions, a time of agreement and a place of agreement.

When values are traded between two parties a transaction occurs.

➢ Market

For a marketer, a market is a set of actual and potential buyers of products/services.

Further reading

Aaker, D. (1991, Brand Equity, New York: The Free Press.

Aaker, D. (2000) Brand Leadership, The Free Press.

Adrian, Palmer (2004), Principles of Marketing (4th Edition), Oxford University Press.

Ambler, T. (1992), Need –to – Know marketing, London Century.

Arnold, J. (2000), Creative Thinking, New York.

Baker, M. (2000), Marketing Management and Strategy, MacMillian.

Blythe, J. (2001), Essentials of Marketing, Prentice Hall.

Cannon, T. [1996], Basic Marketing: Principles and practice [4th edn], Cassell, London.

Chisnall, P. (1995), Marketing a behavioural analysis, London: McGraw- Hill.

Cohen, W. (2005), The Marketing Plan, 4th Edition, John Wiley and Sons Inc.

Ellwood, I. (2002), Marketing Communication, Strategy and Applications, Prentice Hall.

Kerin, H. (2006), Marketing 8th Edition McGraw Hill, Irwin.

Kotler, P. (2006), Principles of Marketing, (7th Edition), Englewood, Prentice Hall International Edition.

Lehman, D. (2002), Analysis for Marketing Planning, McGraw Hill.

CHAPTER 2

MARKETING MANAGEMENT AND PHILOSOPHIES

Aim

To introduce marketing management and philosophies.

Objectives

After studying this chapter you should be able to:

• Understand the meaning of marketing management.

• Understand the need for marketing management.

• Understand the meaning of marketing management philosophies or concepts.

• Outline and explain various marketing management philosophies or concepts.

2.1 Marketing Management

2.1.1 Introduction

Marketing management could be described as the analysis, planning, implementing and control of marketing programmes and activities that create value and satisfaction to customers and stakeholders including the business organisation.

Kotler defined marketing management as The analysis, planning, implementing and control of programmes designed to create build and maintain beneficial exchanges with target buyers for the purpose of achieving organisation’s goals and objectives.

Simply put, marketing management involves carrying out tasks to achieve desired exchanges with target market.

Since successful marketing does not generally come about by accident, it is imperative that marketing activities need to be managed effectively to achieve marketing objectives.

Marketing management therefore involves:

✓ Demand management.

✓ Managing profitable customer relationships.

✓ Management the marketing process and outcomes.

✓ Managing marketing structures.

2.1.2 Demand management

Kotler (2008), argues that marketing management is demand management - that seeks to affect level of timing, and nature of demand in a way that helps the organisation achieve its objectives. It is not only about finding enough customers for the company’s current output, but maintaining the level of demand, as every organisation usually has the desired level of demand for its products.

It is likely that demand for products of the organisation may be subject to fluctuations. At any point in time, there may be no demand, adequate demand, regular demand or too much demand, and marketing management must find ways to deal with these different demand stages. Marketing management as demand management must be geared towards finding ways to deal with different demand stages that affects outputs (products/services) of organisations. It should also be concerned with not only finding and increasing demand, but also with changing or even reducing it, when and where necessary. For example, in cases of excess demand, a business would need marketing task called DEMARKETING - to reduce demand temporarily or permanently. The aim is not to destroy but only to reduce or shift it, seeking to affect level of timing, and nature of demand in a way that helps the organisation achieve its objectives.

2.1.3 Managing profitable customer relationships

Marketing management also involves managing profitable customer relationships.

Traditional marketing has always focused on attracting new customers and making the sale. Recent studies however, show that new customers are now not easy or cheap to win and maintain as the cost of attracting new customers is now rising and continue to rise. In fact it is estimated that it will cost five times to attract a new customer as it does to keeping existing customers satisfied.

Marketing management in relation to demand management today, now emphasis on strategies that will help attract and retain customers and build lasting customer relationships, rather than designing strategies to attract new customers, as it will cost less to retain and maintain existing customers than to attract new ones. To achieve this successfully there is the need to build profitable customer relationships.

Building profitable customer relationships will help the organisation maintain lasting relationship with existing customers and reduce the risk of losing them, realising that losing a customer means more than losing a single sale. It means losing an entire stream of purchase that the customer would make over a lifetime of patronage. Customer retention is seen as key to achieving superior customer value and satisfaction and business profitability.

2.1.4 Managing marketing structures

Marketing management also involves managing marketing structures.

Internally, the structure and politics of an organisation affect the manner in which it can respond to changing customer needs.

An organisation which gives all marketing responsibilities to just a narrow group of people may in fact create tensions within the organisation which make it less effective at responding to change, compared to an organisation where the philosophy and practice of marketing are shared more widely.

There are two aspects of management structure that particularly affect the role of marketing:

1. The internal structure and processes of the marketing department.

2. The relationship of the marketing functions to other business functions.

It is clear that marketing plans and implementations would be easier and more comfortable to developed and implemented in an atmosphere of sound relationship between marketing department managers and other functional managers as well as members of their organisation.

2.2 Marketing Management Philosophies

2.2.1 Introduction

Marketing could also be described as the process that involves identifying consumers and carrying out task to achieve their desired needs by providing value and satisfaction in the marketplace. This demand that the marketing manager should be clear about what marketing management philosophy should guide marketing effort to deliver value and satisfaction in the marketplace - what weight should be given to the interest of the organisation, customers and society?

There are alternative concepts under which organisations conduct