Summary Of "Introduction To Logic" By Irving Copi: UNIVERSITY SUMMARIES

By MAURICIO ENRIQUE FAU

If you are looking to learn the secrets of logic, this book is ideal for you. Along with basic questions of the discipline, such as definitions, language, propositions, syllogisms, analogies and inferences, we especially recommend one of its axes: fallacies. Fallacies are reasonings that are apparently correct, but are actually tricks to convince others. These pseudo-reasonings are permanently used in politics, advertising and other spheres, and their effects can be very harmful. So it is better to know how they are constructed and how they work, in order not to fall into the manipulative clutches. False arguments are everywhere: in a political spot for elections that seeks to convince you to vote for x candidate or in the advertising of a fashionable soap that promises eternal youth for your complexion. Irving Copi is a specialist in formal and non-formal logical fallacies. This summary will help you understand and confront the uses and abuses of logic. So, whether it is not to vote for the candidate who is trying to fool you, not to buy the product that looks so good on TV but is not what it promised when you get your hands on it, or simply not to be fooled by that friend or relative who seems so sure of what he is arguing, this book will certainly help you. Do you think that reading and writing is important? Of course it is. But so is learning the rules of logic and argument. This book introduces you to fallacies and fallacious reasoning in a nutshell. You will learn how to detect them and how to counter your opponent's arguments or avoid the danger of putting them into practice. Summary of "Introduction to Logic by Irving Copi" will undoubtedly help you understand, reason better and make better decisions. We have summarized the essentials of the following chapters: 1- INTRODUCTION, 2- THE USES OF LANGUAGE, 3- NON-FORMAL Fallacies, 4- DEFINITION, 5- CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS, 6- CATEGORICAL SYLOGYMS, 8- SYMBOLIC LOGIC, 11- ANALOGY AND PROBABLE INFERENCE and 12- CAUSAL CONNECTIONS: MILL'S METHODS FOR EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH.

• Language: English
• Publisher: BOOKS AND SUMMARIES BY MAURICIO FAU
• Release date: Oct 7, 2021
• ISBN: 9798201562809

MAURICIO ENRIQUE FAU

Mauricio Enrique Fau nació en Buenos Aires en 1965. Se recibió de Licenciado en Ciencia Política en la Universidad de Buenos Aires. Cursó también Derecho en la UBA y Periodismo en la Universidad de Morón. Realizó estudios en FLACSO Argentina. Docente de la UBA y AUTOR DE MÁS DE 3.000 RESÚMENES de Psicología, Sociología, Ciencia Política, Antropología, Derecho, Historia, Epistemología, Lógica, Filosofía, Economía, Semiología, Educación y demás disciplinas de las Ciencias Sociales. Desde 2005 dirige La Bisagra Editorial, especializada en técnicas de estudio y materiales que facilitan la transición desde la escuela secundaria a la universidad. Por intermedio de La Bisagra publicó 38 libros. Participa en diversas ferias del libro, entre ellas la Feria Internacional del Libro de Buenos Aires y la FIL Guadalajara.

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Summary Of Introduction To Logic By Irving Copi

UNIVERSITY SUMMARIES

MAURICIO ENRIQUE FAU

Published by BOOKS AND SUMMARIES BY MAURICIO FAU, 2021.

While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher assumes no responsibility for errors or omissions, or for damages resulting from the use of the information contained herein.

SUMMARY OF INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC BY IRVING COPI

First edition. October 7, 2021.

Copyright © 2021 MAURICIO ENRIQUE FAU.

ISBN: 979-8201562809

Written by MAURICIO ENRIQUE FAU.

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Summary Of Introduction To Logic By Irving Copi (UNIVERSITY SUMMARIES)

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Copi, Irving

INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1. What is logic?

LOGIC IS THE STUDY OF THE METHODS AND PRINCIPLES USED TO DISTINGUISH GOOD REASONING FROM BAD REASONING.

A TRADITIONAL PART of logic consists of the examination and analysis of incorrect methods of reasoning, i.e. fallacies. An important clarification is that all reasoning is thinking, but not all thinking is reasoning, since we can remember something without reasoning about it. Reasoning is a special type of thinking in which inferences are made, that is, in which conclusions are derived from premises. The distinction between correct and incorrect reasoning is the central problem that logic must deal with.

2. Premises and conclusions

INFERENCE is a process by which a proposition is arrived at and affirmed on the basis of one or more other propositions accepted as a starting point. PROPOSITIONS ARE TRUE OR FALSE, and in this they differ from questions, commands and exclamations. Two different sentences can express the same proposition: John loves Mary is the same as Mary is loved by John.

Sentences that state a meaning are PROPOSITIONS. Moreover, the sentence is always part of a given language, whereas propositions are not proper to any of the languages in which they can be formulated: it rains is the same as Il pleut as far as meaning is concerned. In different contexts, the same sentence can be used to express very different propositions: E.g., The president is radical will be true in 1984 and false in 1990. A reasoning is any group of propositions such that one of them is claimed to derive from the others, which are taken as elements of judgment in favor of the truth of the first.

The CONCLUSION of a reasoning is the proposition that is affirmed on the basis of the other propositions of the same, and at the same time these propositions of which it is affirmed that they provide the elements of judgment or the reasons to accept the conclusion are the PREMISES of the reasoning. Premise and conclusion are relative terms: the same proposition can be premise in one reasoning and conclusion in another.

3. Recognition of reasoning

In some reasonings the premises are stated first and the conclusion at the end. But this is not so in all cases. The conclusion may be before the premises or mixed between them. Not everything that is said in the course of a reasoning is either a premise or a conclusion of the reasoning. Moreover, some passages may contain two or more reasonings, successive or mixed.

4. Deduction and induction

A DEDUCTIVE REASONING is valid when its premises give a sure foundation for the conclusion, that is, when the premises and the conclusion are related in such a way that it is impossible for the premises to be true without the conclusion also being true. All deductive reasoning is either valid or invalid. An inductive reasoning does not claim that its premises provide conclusive grounds for the truth of its conclusion, but only that they provide some basis for it. They are neither valid nor invalid, although they may be better or worse according to their degree of probability. If a deductive reasoning is valid, then its conclusion follows with equal necessity from its premises independently of anything else we may add.

We call deductive reasoning that whose conclusion follows from its premises with absolute necessity, a necessity which is neither a matter of degree nor dependent on anything else. We call INDUCTIVE REASONING that whose conclusion follows from its premises only with some probability, a probability which is a matter of degree and depends on other things. Only from propositions can truth and falsity be predicated, never from reasoning.

5. Truth and validity

On the contrary, validity or invalidity belong to reasonings and never to propositions. Some reasonings have only true propositions such as All whales are mammals. All mammals have lungs. Therefore, all whales have lungs. But a reasoning can have all false propositions and still be valid, such as All spiders have six legs. All six-legged creatures have wings. Therefore, all spiders have wings. This reasoning is valid because if its premises were true, its conclusion would also have to be true, even if in fact they are all false.

Let's look at this example:

If Rockefeller owned all the gold in Fort Knox, he would be very rich.

Rockefeller does not own all the gold in Fort Knox.

Therefore, Rockefeller is not very rich.

The premises of this reasoning are true and its conclusion is false. Such reasoning cannot be valid, since it is impossible for the premises of a valid reasoning to be true and its conclusion false. There are valid reasonings with false conclusions and invalid reasonings with true conclusions.

THE TRUTH OR FALSITY OF ITS CONCLUSION DOES NOT DETERMINE THE VALIDITY OR INVALIDITY OF A REASONING, NOR VICE VERSA. THE LOGICIAN IS NOT SO MUCH INTERESTED IN TRUTH OR FALSITY, BUT IN VALIDITY OR INVALIDITY.

CHAPTER 2 THE USES OF LANGUAGE

The three basic functions of language

Ludwig Wittgenstein stresses that there are innumerable uses of language, such as giving commands, describing an object, reporting an event, elaborating and testing a hypothesis, acting in theater, singing, making a joke, etc. But such uses fall into three broad categories.

The first of these three uses of language is to communicate information, through the affirmation or negation of propositions. This is the informative function, used to describe the world and reason about it.

The second is the expressive function, used for example in poetry, while the informative function is more common in scientific language. The poet's purpose is to communicate, not knowledge, but feelings and attitudes.

However, not all expressive language is poetic, for example, saying What a disgrace or Bravo. These are all uses of language not intended to inform, but to express emotions, feelings or attitudes. It is therefore neither true nor false. The expressive use has two aspects: in one case it seeks to awaken an attitude similar to one's own in another person, as