Principles of Ayurvedic Medicine

By Marc Halpern

This textbook, which is used at the California College of Ayurveda and in Schools of Ayurveda across the country, was written by Dr. Marc Halpern, Ayurvedic Doctor, over a course of 30+ years. His book has been praised for how clear and inspiring his writing is, and how even the most complex subjects are communicated in a manner that is eas

• Language: English
• Publisher: California College of Ayurveda
• Release date: Mar 15, 2020
• ISBN: 9781737408116

Book preview

1

Philosophy

Introduction

Āyurveda exists to keep mankind healthy. This is its primary goal. An ancient science, Āyurveda reflects an age-old fundamental drive: the maintenance of good health and the desire for longevity, if not immortality.

It is true that human beings and human nature, being what it is, have always feared death, despised suffering, and sought immortality. While the science of Āyurveda may be seen as the remedy for suffering and, in some schools of thought, for death itself, it was a gift granted to humans by God, without indulgence in life in mind.

The highest goal of Āyurveda has never been immortality in the physical sense, but spiritual immortality in the form of enlightenment. Hence, the goal of Āyurveda has always been to keep people healthy, while they pursue their more important spiritual goals.

As students explore and study the science of Āyurveda the realization dawns that they are immersing themselves in the study of life itself, a subject so large that it challenges the boundaries of the mind. The willing student jumps off the ledge of limited perception into the realm of ever-expanding unlimited possibility and potential. It is here that the student of Āyurveda finds fulfillment, truth and dharma.

As people embark on the journey of healing through Āyurveda, they realize that good health is related almost directly and proportionally to proper lifestyle and state of mind. The journey to create an optimal lifestyle and a peaceful state of mind is a noble journey and not an easy path. As health improves, with proper lifestyle and a peaceful state of mind, life expands with equal tenacity. Ultimately, a perfectly harmonious lifestyle, with unblemished peace of mind, grants a person maximum life extension. As this is a state of the highest prāṇa (life energy coursing through the body and mind), it is not only life that expands, but consciousness itself. The result is enlightenment. Hence, the path to perfect health parallels the path to enlightenment!

The Two Goals of Āyurveda

To keep the body in a state of health and free from disease.

To show us how to use health as a basis of, or as a part of, the path to enlightenment.

Āyurveda is not merely a science of disease prevention; it is a complete medical science that aims at healing disease or imbalances within the body. Like all medical sciences, it understands disease in terms of cause, symptoms and treatment. The Caraka Saṃhitā, India’s greatest text on Āyurvedic medicine, outlines the same three components of understanding disease as is found in most other systems of healing. It is these three components that the Āyurvedic physician studies.

Etiology

Etiology is the cause of disease. Cause is a large subject with many layers, both gross and subtle. There must be an understanding of cause in order to approach cure. Āyurveda looks at the gross and subtle causes and addresses them both with treatment.

Symptomatology

These are symptoms associated with diseases, or imbalances. Symptoms are the body’s way of communicating that something is wrong. They are, in a sense, the body’s voice. The practitioner learns to carefully listen to the body’s voice to discover the nature of the imbalances. With this understanding, the practitioner can design a treatment program.

Therapeutics

This is the understanding of how to treat and manage disease. Āyurvedic therapeutics are based on the relationship between the patient and their environment. Health is the natural end result of living in harmony. Disease is the natural end result of living out of harmony. Healing is the process of returning to harmony. The knowledge of what is harmonious and what is disharmonious is the science of therapeutics.

Defining Āyurveda

Āyurveda is a Saṃskṛta term. Saṃskṛta is the language of Āyurveda and it is the oldest written language on the planet. The term Āyurveda comes from the roots "āyus" and "veda." āyus may be translated as life and veda as knowledge. Hence, Āyurveda is the knowledge of life.

The terms knowledge and life require deeper explanation. Genuine knowledge is not simply the understanding of facts but a deep knowing of truth. To know something means to become one with the knowledge. This is the highest form of knowing and is called direct perception.

Life is more than that which invigorates and animates the body. It is also that which invigorates consciousness. It exists in both a gross and a subtle form. The gross form ends when we die. The subtle form is immortal. It proceeds from lifetime to lifetime, carrying with it our karmic seeds. Āyurveda is thus the science of life, both gross and subtle.

In Bhagwan Dash’s legendary commentary on the Caraka Saṃhitā, he defines āyus as the combination of body, sense organs, mind and soul. Hence, there is no part of our existence, or life, which Āyurveda does not address. He further elaborates by providing the synonyms anubandha, dhāri, and jīvita to help the student fully appreciate the meaning of āyus. Anubandha is that which transmigrates from one body to the next. This, of course, is the subtlest aspect of who we are, our soul. Dhāri is the one that keeps the body from decaying. Jīvita is that which keeps us alive.

Health and Disease

Health

According to the American Heritage dictionary, health is defined as the state of an organism functioning normally without disease or abnormality. Any state of optimal functioning, well being or progress.¹ This purely functional definition of health illuminates only a part of the picture of what health is.

In Saṃskṛta, the word for health, or perfect health, is svastha. This term comes from the root sva, which means self, and stha, which means established or solid. Hence, the term svastha means established in the self. This is a philosophical understanding of health that adds richness to the idea and important psychospiritual concepts.

There are two selves in most Vedic literature. There is Self, usually spelled with a capital S, which signifies the higher self, or that part of us which is always connected to the Divine or the greater whole and that emanates our highest virtues. Then there is self, usually spelled with a lower case s, which signifies our lower self, or that part of us which is ego based and disconnected from a sense of wholeness.

Svastha equates perfect health with being established in the self. Which self svastha is referring to is open to philosophical debate. It can be argued that health depends on a healthy ego. Sāṅkhya philosophy, upon which much of Āyurveda is predicated, teaches that the ego, or sense of individual self, is responsible for producing the body. Hence, it must be healthy in order to produce a healthy body. This sense of self would be called self-esteem in the West. Western mind/body psychologists have come to equate positive, healthy self-esteem with positive physical health.

It can also be stated that in order to have perfect health, a person must be firmly established in his or her higher Self, that part of each person that is connected to the Divine. From this spiritual place of higher awareness, a person draws the necessary power to gain mastery over sensory indulgence. It is also from this place that a person gains awareness of his or her dharma or higher purpose in life. Hence, the actions that a person takes are for the greater good, performed in service to the Divine and free from the consequences of karma.

Hence, perfect health is the end result of both positive self-esteem as well as spiritual Self-awareness. Both are necessary for the production of good health. With both of these firmly in hand, a person can attain Self–realization and maintain perfect health along the journey.

In the exploration of the definition of health, many authors have given their opinions. In the Suśruta Saṃhitā, the author gives a purely physical definition, based solely on the Āyurvedic physical science. It is stated that The ideal healthy person is an individual who has a balanced constitution.² Dr. Vasant Lad explores Āyurvedic physiology in his statement that, …a state of health exists when the digestive agni is in a balanced condition, the bodily humors are in equilibrium, the three waste products are produced in normal levels and are in balance; the senses are functioning normally and the body and mind and consciousness are harmoniously working together.³

The concept of health can also be explored behaviorally. Perfect health may be said to exist where there is perfect harmony between a person’s inherent constitution and the environment. In order for this to occur, a person must be the master of the senses, choosing to interact with the environment in ways that are harmonious with his or her own nature.

Disease

According to the American Heritage dictionary, disease is an abnormal condition of the organism that impairs normal physiological functioning.⁴ This common understanding of disease, while accurate, is limited to an understanding of the physical aspects of our nature only.

In holistic circles, it is common to define disease in its most literal sense, a lack of ease. This definition requires an understanding of the word ease. Ease is a lack of obstruction to effort. Effort is the force that moves energy. This energetic interpretation of disease is a valuable understanding in that we are all fundamentally energetic beings. Any impedance to the flow of energy through this system is not only certain to cause disease, but defines disease.

Noted author Dr. Robert Svoboda states the following in his book, Prakṛti: Your Āyurvedic Constitution, Diseases are beings with parasitic intentions. Some have bodies like worms, bacteria and show signs of collective consciousness just as social insects like ants and termites do. Others have no bodies of their own and take possession of an organism in order to express the compulsions of individual existence. Still others like cancer are created within the body. Cure occurs when the alien personality is expelled from the organism and the host’s innate personality returns to normal.⁵ This colorful description of disease should remind the student that disease is an alteration of consciousness, and healing is the process of recalling our true nature as pure consciousness.

Understanding what health is, disease can be understood as its opposite. Disease is anything less than perfect health. Any abnormal function of the dhātus (tissues), malas (wastes), or doṣas implies disease. Any disturbance of a person’s peace of mind and well-being, no matter how slight, implies disease. The Āyurvedic understanding of disease offers a more sensitive definition than traditional Western medicine. Disease is not only grossly physical, but may be subtle and spiritual as well.

The Causes of Disease

Disease begins when we forget our own nature as spirit. In losing this awareness, we forget that the Divine essence resides within each of us. This essence is the principle of ātmān in Sāṅkhya philosophy. It is our spirit or soul. Once we forget our true nature as spirit, we understand ourselves only as body and mind, and become wrapped up in the nature of the physical world and all of its stories and dramas. This results in disturbances within the mind. These disturbances, or "vṛttis," disturb the mental tranquility and cause challenging emotions to bubble up into our awareness. These emotions upset the biological energies that control the body, and the result is physical disease. Forgetting our true nature as spirit is the primordial cause of all disease.

Once we have forgotten our true nature as spirit, we become dominated by the ego (the sense of separateness and individuality) and we live our lives as sensory beings. In the pursuit of pleasure through the senses, we tend to overindulge. This leads to a host of energetic and physical imbalances that disturb the bodily doṣas, resulting in disease.

Most important among these imbalances is the disturbance of the digestive system. Weakness of digestion results in the formation of toxins in the body. Āyurveda calls these toxins āma. āma is understood to coat the cells and clog the channels systems of the body, interfering with normal biological processes and functioning.

In the Caraka Saṃhitā,⁶ a three-fold cause of disease is outlined. This outline is most important to Āyurvedic thought. Understanding these three causes guides the Āyurvedic practitioner to examine the entire nature and lifestyle of the patient. These three causes are the foundation of Āyurvedic theory and practice.

The Three Causes of Disease Outlined in the Caraka Saṃhitā

The unwholesome conjunction of the senses with the objects of their affection

Having forgotten its true nature as spirit, mankind understands itself to exist only as its senses, its body and its mind. With this understanding of self, the meaning of life becomes the simple pursuit of pleasure.

Our senses are the vehicles through which we relate to the world around us. They are portals, or gateways, into our body, our mind and our consciousness. We are constantly taking in energetic and physical impressions. These impressions are either harmonious or disharmonious in relationship to a person’s constitution. They either bring a person toward harmony and health or toward disharmony and disease. When people take into their body that which does not match their constitution, they are considered to be misusing the senses. In addition to taking in what is not harmonious, a person may also take in too much or too little of what is energetically harmonious for that person. This, too, will cause disease.

Understanding the role of the senses in the cause of disease, Āyurveda utilizes the five sensory therapies to bring about healing to the patient. Āyurveda utilizes taste therapy in the form of diet and herbs, touch therapy in the form of massage, visual therapy in the form of colors, sound therapy in the form of mantra, and smell therapy in the form of aromatherapy.

Where there is harmony, there is health. Where there is disharmony, there is disease. Āyurveda is the science of creating harmony between our physical nature and our environment through the five senses.

Prajñaparādha: Intellectual blasphemy, the failure of the intellect or crimes against wisdom

Our intellect is constantly being used to make decisions. We base our decisions on what we have learned, infer and intuit to be true. When we listen deeply inside of ourselves, we find that we know how to act in ways that would bring us toward health and peace of mind. Yet, we often do not follow what we know to be true. We may choose to stay up too late, eat too much, eat the wrong foods, watch too much TV and partake of other such unhealthy behaviors in spite of the fact that we know we will not feel optimal after the behavior. This is prajñaparādha and it causes us to become sick.

Our intellect is connected to both our senses and our soul. Both send information to the intellect so that the intellect can make decisions. The senses provide information about pleasure and pain and argue to make decisions that lead toward pleasure. The senses desire pleasure. The soul provides information about which choice would be the most harmonious and in the greater good. The intellect has to constantly choose between pleasure and harmony. The ego (self) exerts a lot of control over this process. The senses are the agent of the ego working hard to assure that the ego is happy. While the ego and the senses speak loudly within the great hall of the mind, the soul speaks in whispers. The whispers of the soul are hard to hear and many never hear them at all. Hence, it comes as little surprise that the intellect most often makes the decision that brings the most pleasure.

Understanding the role of the intellect in the cause of disease, Āyurveda utilizes Yoga to train the intellect to listen deeply and hear the voice of the soul. When a person hears the voice of the soul, he or she becomes aware of their connection to the Divine. This connection fills the listener with spiritual energy and empowers that person to gain control over the senses and make the harmonious decision.

Pariṇāma: Transformation or decay due to time and motion

The word pariṇāma means transformation or change. Transformation and change are motion. Motion is time. That's right, there is no such thing as time without motion! Time is merely a measurement of motion.

Motion causes disease. As we age, we move through a process of transformation from youth to middle age to old age. As we age, the body begins to decay. We become weaker and more frail, and eventually we break down.

This concept is based on the understanding that there are two kinds of time. One is linear and the other is biological. Linear time is based on the movements of the earth on its axis and our movement around the sun. With each revolution days and years accumulate. Linear time is out of our control; there is not much we can do about it. However, biological time is dynamic. The pace of biological time changes in response to our motion. As motion increases, the rate of biological time increases. In other words, the body ages faster when we are moving faster, and more slowly when we slow down.

In general, the busier we are, the faster biological time moves. This is then exacerbated by gross motions such as air and automobile travel. However, as important as the movement of the body is, the movement of the mind is even more important. When the mind is active, time appears to pass quickly. When the mind is still, each minute can be examined and time passes slowly. Biological time mirrors our perceptions. When the mind is active, distracted, in the future or in the past, biological time speeds up. The faster thoughts pass through the mind, the faster biological time moves. When the mind is focused and in the present, biological time slows down. When the mind is perfectly still, as occurs in deep meditation, there is no passage of biological time. That's right, when the mind is still, biological time stops. Aging stops!

Understanding the role of the motion of the mind and the body in the cause of disease, Āyurveda utilizes the practices of Yoga to bring the mind under control, slowing it down so that it does not run wild like an untamed horse. When the mind moves slowly, the body generally follows. Āyurveda utilizes specific routines to help a person focus on the present moment. Focusing on the present slows the mind down. The greater the focus, the slower and more single-pointed the mind becomes. The single-pointed mind is fixed on the present and does not drift to the past or future. Time slows down, stress is reduced, the mind is at peace and the body remains healthy.

Additional Classifications of Disease

While the three causes noted above are the fundamental causes of disease, the Caraka Saṃhitā notes that, from another perspective, disease has five causes. These causes are vāta, pitta, kapha, rajas, and tamas.⁷ Vāta, pitta, and kapha are the three doṣas. Rajas and tamas are two of the three guṇas, or qualities of the mind associated with distraction and ignorance, respectively. The three doṣas and the guṇas are discussed in more detail in a later chapter.

There is yet another classification of disease mentioned in the Caraka Saṃhitā. This classification is of three types as well. They are not causes, but are important classification nonetheless. The three types of disease are those which are endogenous, exogenous, and psychic.⁸

Endogenous diseases are those that have their origin inside the body. These are due to imbalanced doṣas affecting the physiology of the system. Exogenous diseases have their origin outside the body. They are due to outside subtle forces affecting us physically. Examples include being affected by someone's anger. Demonic possession is classically placed in this category as well. This category of disease also includes bacteria, viruses and other such pathogens, as well as toxins. The third category, psychic diseases, has its origin entirely within a person’s own mind. In addition to emotional imbalance, this includes looking upon gross or disgusting things and becoming sickened by them.

The Goals of the Āyurvedic Practitioner

Āyurvedic practitioners are committed to understanding the principles of Āyurveda so that they can use this knowledge to assist the sick individual to become well again. In addition, it is the responsibility of the practitioner to teach each patient the basic principles of Āyurveda, so that the patient becomes empowered to keep himself healthy.

When a patient begins care with a practitioner, they are often most interested in alleviating the symptoms of his condition. While many practitioners can do this, what makes Āyurveda unique is its emphasis on self-awareness. When people understand their constitution and how they relate to the world around them, they become empowered with the choice of how to live. The journey toward living in harmony is the journey we all take and the Āyurvedic practitioner is the guide along the way.

Mythology

The Gathering of the ṛṣis

The ancient story of the origin of Āyurveda told in the Caraka Saṃhitā tells us that a group of great ṛṣis sat together on the slopes of the Himalayan Mountains.⁹ They discussed the occurrence of great diseases that had arisen and how to deal with them. Without specific knowledge, they decided that this was a question for the Gods. They decided that they should ask the Gods how to stay well and avoid disease as well as how to heal those who are sick. But which God should they approach? It was decided that Indra was the best and easiest God to approach. He was a God loved by the mortals and who provided rain for their crops. As it was not right for all of the ṛṣis to go, the ṛṣi Bharadvāja was selected as their emissary, as he was the best suited for the mission.

Bowing before Indra, he explained the reason he needed an audience before such a great God. Bharadvāja was successful and Indra taught him the knowledge of Āyurveda in its entirety.

The knowledge, however, did not originate with Indra. It is understood to have originated with Brāhma, the creator himself. He is said to have taught it to Daksa Prajāpati, the father of Pārvatī. Pārvatī became the wife of Lord Śiva. He in turn taught the Aśvinī Kumāras who were the twin physicians to the Gods. They in turn taught it to Indra.

Upon returning, Bharadvāja taught the science of Āyurveda to the many ṛṣis and sages who awaited his return in the Himalayas. One of the sages was ātreya. In his lineage, he passed on the knowledge to six students. One was Agniveśa and it was Agniveśa who wrote the Agniveśa Tantra, which became known as the Caraka Saṃhitā after Caraka revised it.

Yet this is not the only story of the origin of Āyurveda. In the Suśruta Saṃhitā, the story is told that Āyurveda originated in Benares when the sage Suśruta approached King Divodāsa, who was said to be an incarnation of Lord Dhanvantari, the God of healing. Suśruta approached the king because he wished to alleviate the suffering he saw around him. Thus the King told him that he had received the teaching of Āyurveda from Indra and that he would indeed teach it to Suśruta.¹⁰

There are other stories as well. In one story from the Kaśyapā Saṃhitā (text on pediatrics and women’s care), there were four sages who received the teachings from Indra: Kaśyapā, Vashista, Atri, and Bhrigu. One of Atri’s students was his son ātreya. ātreya then taught Agniveśa and it is his teachings we read in the Caraka Saṃhitā. It is said that one of ātreya’s students was Jīvaka, who went on to be the physician of Lord Buddha.

Samudra Manthana: The Story of the Churning of the Oceans

Once upon a time, the sage Durvasa was working in the fields. Durvasa was a very pious man who performed strong sādhana (spiritual practice) and made offerings to the Gods daily. He worshiped Lord Indra above all else. Lord Indra was the God of the people, watching over the crops and managing the rain. He was also the ruler of heaven. One day, while Durvasa was in the field he saw a great elephant (Airāvata) riding toward him and on top of the elephant rode Lord Indra in all his glory. Having a vision of God is the culmination of deep spiritual practice. Durvasa got down on his knees and quickly put together an offering to him, a garland of beautiful flowers.

Lord Indra and his elephant, Airāvata, stopped in front of the pious sage. The sage offered the garland to Lord Indra who gratefully accepted it. Wanting to show Durvasa that he was indeed without ego, Lord Indra gave the garland to his elephant, placing it around his trunk. Elephants are believed to be very smart and deeply intuitive animals. They are gifted to be able to see things that others cannot see. Airāvata knew the truth about Lord Indra, that he most certainly did have an ego, a strong one in fact. So he rejected Lord Indra's offering and tossed the garland on the ground and stepped on it. The garland sunk deep into the dirt of the muddy field. The sage, Durvasa, was horrified at the sight of his offering in the mud. From his perspective, his offering had been rejected by Lord Indra, who gave it to a silly elephant that dropped it on the ground. He was deeply upset and offended. In a fit of rage, he cursed Lord Indra.

When a powerful and pious sage curses a God, the God loses power and strength. This caused all of the Gods (devas) to lose control of the three worlds; the earth, the sky and the heavens. The demons (asuras) gained power and all-hell began to break loose.

Seeing this, Lord Indra went to the highest and most powerful of the Gods. This was (in this story) Lord Viṣṇu. He told Lord Viṣṇu what happened and asked what to do. After all, it was unacceptable for the Gods to lose control. Lord Viṣṇu then instructed him as follows. "You must raise the sacred nectar (amṛta) from the ocean. One drop of this nectar will give you control over the three worlds and immortality. To do this though, the ocean must be churned. Just like cream is churned to yield butter, the ocean will yield the nectar. But to churn the ocean you will need the help of the Demons. You must place the tallest and strongest mountain upside down in the ocean. You must ask the great serpent demon (Vāsuki) to wrap himself around the mountain. The Gods will then pull on his tail while the Demons pull on his head. Together you will pull back and forth, churning the ocean. Keep churning and eventually the nectar will arise carried by none other than Lord Dhanvantari, the Divine Healer. Remember, take just one drop and you will gain control for all eternity."

Lord Indra set off to arrange the whole event. The Demons wanted to participate as they too would have a chance to gain the sacred nectar and once and for all gain control of the three worlds for all eternity. The great mountain, Mount Mandara, was turned upside down and placed in the water. Vāsuki, the great serpent, agreed to wrap himself around the mountain. All of the demigods (lower gods, other than Lord Viṣṇu) grabbed hold of the tail. All of the demons grabbed hold of the head. Together they churned the ocean.

As they pulled and churned, rather than the ocean being churned the mountain cork-screwed itself into the bottom of the sea. Their attempt failed and they stopped. Seeing this, Lord Viṣṇu took the form of a great sea tortoise named Kūrma and swam to the bottom of the ocean. He allowed the top of Mount Mandara to rest on his back. He drew in his arms, legs and head and stayed perfectly still.

Again the Gods and Demons churned the oceans. This time, many articles arose out of the ocean, each with its own story. For the purposes of this story, however, before the nectar rose from the ocean, a great poison (hālahala) arose and threatened to poison the ocean and all of existence. Upon seeing this, the great God Lord Śiva drank the poison and saved the earth. The Demons and the Gods continued to churn the ocean. Eventually, Lord Dhanvantari (The God of Healing) arose from the ocean carrying a beautiful vessel in his hands. Inside the vessel was the sacred nectar (amṛta).

As you might imagine, both the demigods (devas) and the demons (asuras) were very excited at the sight of the sacred nectar. Both desired the nectar more than anything else. All they needed to do was to take one drop. But, which of them would obtain the nectar first?

The demons, being sneaky, calculating, and without manners, immediately jumped on the nectar, grabbed it, and ran! However, the demons were so busy stealing it from each other and fighting over who would have the first drop of the nectar, that none got any. This gave the demigods time to regroup. And so, Lord Indra again went to Lord Viṣṇu and told him what happened. Realizing that it would be terrible if the demons gained control of the three worlds, Lord Viṣṇu decided to take incarnation as the most beautiful and seductive woman ever to have been imagined. Her name was Mohinī. Mohinī appeared in front of the demons as they were fighting. They were so mesmerized by her beauty that they froze. They were so entranced they could neither speak nor act. Mohinī said to the demons, Give me the nectar and I will make sure that each of you gets a drop. And, I will also give a drop to all of the demigods. The demons, clearly under her spell, simply handed her the vessel containing the nectar.

Mohinī then had all of the demons and all of the demigods line up to receive a drop. She first gave a drop to each of the gods and then, when it became time to give a drop to the demons, she disappeared.¹¹

Now, stories vary about what happened next depending upon the source. Along with other minor variations, some stories tell that the demons were simply left high and dry. Other stories say that one drop fell to the earth and spawned a very powerful demon who would eventually be defeated. Another story tells of a demon who disguised himself as a demigod and who received a drop. However, his head was cut off once the folly was revealed. Being immortal however, he did not die. His head became Rāhu and his body became Ketu. This part of the story has implications to Vedic Astrology where Rāhu and Ketu represent the two orbital nodes of the moon as it crosses the ecliptic (See Appendix 2).

In another story, Garuda, the king of birds, messenger of the Gods, who also occasionally carries Lord Viṣṇu in various stories, flew away with the nectar before anyone received a drop. He was going to use it to save his mother who was imprisoned by a demon. While flying, he dropped four drops on the earth. These four drops fell in four locations now considered sacred for this reason. They are the sites of an annual festival called Kumbha Melā. Kumbha means pot and refers to the vessel carrying the nectar. Melā means gathering. All stories, however, end with the gods receiving the nectar and defeating the demons.

Important Symbolism in the Samudra Manthana

Vedic stories are rich in symbolism. Symbolism is the view of a story through the insight of the reader. Some of the following insights are universal and some are those of the author. It is commonly understood that the demigods represent our higher Self or Divine Self and that the demons represent our lower self or ego. The three worlds are the physical world, the subtle (astral) world and the causal (karmic) world. The ocean is our consciousness. The churning is the timeless struggle between good and evil, dark and light, ego and consciousness. With the stage now set, let's look again at the story.

The following are the author’s insights: The Sage Durvasa is the reader, you. There are times when each of us feels spurned by God. There are times we feel disappointed or even angry. At these times we may even curse God. When we do, our higher Self loses control of the three worlds. In the human being, the three worlds correspond to the body, mind and consciousness. When the higher Self loses control, suffering ensues.

Because we each desire happiness, we are led to do what is needed to end suffering and restore happiness. To do this, we must churn the ocean. The ocean is our consciousness, but we experience this in our mind. We call this conscious awareness. Thus, the ego and the higher Self are churning the ocean. They are doing battle, working together, but each with its own interest. The interest of the higher Self is balance, well-being and the greater good. The interest of the ego is pleasure and indulgence. This churning is not easy on us. We all seem to have a devil on one shoulder and an angel on the other directing our actions.

As our conscious awareness is churned we suffer. From that suffering the sacred nectar will arise. This is an inner medicine, carried by the Divine Healer that promises perfect health, physically, emotionally and at the level of consciousness. At first, the demons will grab the nectar. They may even use their new found power (expanded ego) to gain great power in the world. Eventually though, it is the demigods who receive the nectar and, as a result, our higher Self rules over our lower self and the ego is subdued. When this occurs, a person is filled with spiritual power and this power eventually leads to liberation. Liberation is the expansion of consciousness so that it is not limited to the body and mind but now identifies with all creation. There is oneness and wholeness and eternal bliss. The good news is that we are all guaranteed to eventually subdue our ego. This is the message of the story.

Additional Important Symbols in the Samudra Manthana

Mount Mandara: The great mountain represents the strength and steadfastness that a person must cultivate to churn the ocean. It is not an easy task.

Vāsuki: Snakes and serpents often represent time, transformation and desire in the Vedic stories. There is no transformation that can take place without it occurring over time. The journey takes time. Each of us must be patient. The serpent also represents desire. Both the demigods and the demons have basic desires. It is their desire for control that churns the ocean. Vāsuki is a naga, a family of divine snakes that are a type of demon. Indeed, both desire and time are demons.

Kūrma: The tortoise represents the five senses. Each of its feet and its head represent a sense organ. Kūrma draws its head and feet within in order to stay still. This is necessary to sustain the great mountain. On our journey, we will each need to withdraw our senses from indulging in the world. This is necessary in order to remain steady on the path. Sensory pleasure is a powerful distraction. It is used by the ego to distract us from our spiritual progress. Both the āyurvedic and yogic journeys are one of learning to control the senses.

Hālahala: This is the poison that comes up first as the ocean is churned. It is important to realize that it is normal to have negativity arise as the ocean is churned. Negativity is a toxin that comes from the stress of churning. The toxin is managed when it is turned over to a higher power. In the story, Śiva represents that aspect of our higher nature that destroys negativity.

Airāvata: This is the elephant that carries Lord Viṣṇu. Elephants symbolize the omniscient part of ourselves that is able to see through illusion and identify truth. In this story, the illusion is the spiritual development of Lord Indra (our higher self) and the false illusion of having overcome the ego. This is the definition of spiritual arrogance. When we believe ourselves to be more spiritual than we are, we set into motion events that will threaten control of body, mind and spirit. Spiritual arrogance is a trap on the spiritual journey.

Mohinī: Mohinī represents our ultimate desire for the highest pleasure. The ego is compelled to follow that desire. Eventually, it is that same desire that leads a person toward Divine awareness. Mohinī (desire) betrays the demons (ego). This symbolizes how our desire for pleasure will eventually lead us to seek the pleasure of Divine awareness and the bliss that comes with it. This occurs when the ego realizes that worldly pleasures cannot sustain happiness.

The Gods Received the Amṛta: This guarantees that the higher Self will eventually win out over the ego. Each person is guaranteed to achieve the highest state of consciousness and become enlightened and liberated. However, this will take time.

Lord Dhanvantari: Lord Dhanvantari represents the Divine Healer that exists within the heart of each of us. The heart is the seat of consciousness. The ocean in the story exists within the heart. The Divine Healer rises from the churning of our individual consciousness (experienced in the mind as pleasure and pain). The healer cannot rise without the churning. Yes, the torment of the mind is a part of each person's spiritual journey.

Lord Dhanvantari

Lord Dhanvantari is the primal deity, the God of Āyurveda and of healing. While Āyurveda is not religious, its knowledge is infused into Hinduism. Hence, through the study of Hinduism, much of the knowledge of Āyurveda becomes clearer.

In addition to the mythological story of Lord Dhanvantari arising from the ocean carrying the sacred nectar, Lord Dhanvantari is said to have been the King of Benares and is credited with propagating the surgical aspect of Āyurveda as well as its philosophical aspects. This story is mentioned in the Suśruta Saṃhitā, an important Āyurvedic text that includes surgery. Considered a great king, he ascended to God-like stature and is understood to be an incarnation of Lord Viṣṇu, the preserver who has come to earth in his many forms to help humanity.

Today, he is depicted with four arms. In one, he holds a conch, symbolizing his ascent from the churning ocean waters and, perhaps, that the sea offers us many medicines. In another, he holds a leach used for blood-letting. In the third, he holds a circular cakra, or discus, which may be used for cutting as in surgery. And, in his fourth hand, he holds the amṛta. This is the magic potion, or nectar, which brings healing and immortality to the consumer.

It is believed that one could not learn the science of Āyurveda without the blessings of Lord Dhanvantari. And it is to Lord Dhanvantari one prays when summoning the power of healing. As the Gods are creations of man, Lord Dhanvantari represents the power of healing that occurs within an individual. Prayers and offerings to this aspect of God awaken our healing potential.

History

Trying to piece together India’s history is not an easy task, as it is equally complicated by mythology, politics and the lack of a clear written record. Hence, scholars have tried on many occasions to put forth a history, only to have it questioned by other scholars. The result is varying interpretations of the history of India.

Below is a rough outline and sketch of India’s history relevant to Āyurveda that is sure to please few serious historians but will serve the needs of the Āyurvedic student who is trying to gain a handle on India’s rich body of scripture. It should be noted that all dates are approximations at best. Scholars make claims that can vary dramatically.

A brief History of India

in the Beginning

The history of India is generally discussed in terms of the people who originated in the Indus Valley (Northwestern India including portions of Pakistan). The Indus Valley civilization, an advanced culture, flourished about 3000 BCE and it is from this region that the Vedas emerged. Modern human (Homo sapiens) presence in the region of India, however, goes back some 75,000 years. To keep this in perspective, earlier hominids (Homo erectus) in the region date back to 500,000 BCE.¹²

The Vedic Age—Pre-1500 BCE

The Vedic Age refers to the time period of the writing of the Vedas and the later related texts that include the Upaniṣads, āraṇyaka and Brāhmaṇa. All of these writings preceded the time of Kṛṣṇa. The Upaniṣads reinterpreted the philosophical aspects of the Vedas, updating the language for the time, adding order and organization and expounding upon many concepts now familiar to those who study Yoga including the ideas of Self-realization, karma and reincarnation. The āraṇyaka are texts that were used by those who left society to dwell in the forest. The Brāhmaṇa are ritualistic texts used by priests who served the Aryan kings. The Upaniṣads, āraṇyaka and Brāhmaṇa overlap a great deal in their knowledge as they stem from the Vedas. Each developed the knowledge differently for use by different groups.

The oldest writings of Vedic knowledge are called the Vedas which means knowledge. These are also the oldest known writings in the world. Contained within these writings are the roots of India’s philosophical and spiritual traditions, as well as its medical system. While Āyurveda is not one of the major books of the Vedas, it is considered an upaveda or secondary book of knowledge, whose roots flow most directly from knowledge contained in the ātharva veda.

There are four Vedas, called the Ṛgveda, ātharva veda, Sāmaveda and Yajurveda. The person credited with writing or compiling the Vedas is Veda Vyāsa. However, Veda Vyāsa is a title and not a true name. The title refers to one who has divided up the Vedas for the purposes of organizing and explaining them. There have been 28 Veda Vyasas throughout the ages and the 18th was the ṛṣi, Kṛṣṇa Dvaipāyana. He is credited as the author. However, he did not exactly write them down. There was little writing at that time. He compiled, organized and passed down the knowledge through an oral tradition. He is credited with many classical writings including the Mahābhārata, Rāmāyaṇa and the Purāṇa. However, few believe that he is responsible for all of the writings, as they took place over thousands of years. Some Hindus consider him to be an incarnation of Lord Viṣṇu. Others see him as an enlightened being. Historians believe that he lived sometime between 2000-3000 BCE.

Of all the Vedas, the Ṛgveda is the oldest and all other writings are based upon the knowledge contained in this compilation. The age of the Ṛgveda is difficult to determine and scholars disagree. A common approximation given by historians is 1500 BCE. The actual hymns themselves are older than the written record and thus, it is commonly stated that the Vedas date back 5-10,000 years or as far back as 8000 BCE. David Frawley, in his book, From the River of Heaven states that many great yogis and scholars, who understand astronomical references in the hymns, date the Ṛgveda as before 4000 BCE, perhaps as early as 12,000 BCE.¹³

The text itself is considered to be of Indo-Aryan origin by Western scholars. The Indo-Aryan people are thought to have come from northern Afghanistan and entered the Indian subcontinent from the north into the region of Punjab and to have settled along the Indus (Sindhu) river in the Indus Valley, in what is now Pakistan and northwest India. This theory is, however, just one of several about the origins of the Vedic civilization. David Frawley points out that the Vedic civilization was certainly rich in the vicinity of Punjab, northwestern India, and that it has connections to the area of Afghanistan. Several rivers in Afghanistan have ancient Vedic names. But he questions whether or not Afghanistan was the primary home of the Vedic people or rather an area influenced by a Vedic culture that developed indigenously and spread outward. In his book, Gods, Sages and Kings, he provides a compelling argument that the Vedic culture formed along an ancient river, the Saraswati River. Worshiped in the Ṛgveda, this great river, though a dry river bed today, has been found through aerial photography. At one time, it was, as described in the Ṛgveda, the greatest river of India and was worshiped as the Divine mother. It flowed through the region of Rajasthan, a western state in India a little further south that also borders Pakistan. Frawley concludes that the Vedic civilization is much older than the Indus Valley civilization and that the Aryan (wise, noble) people originated along the Saraswati River and did not migrate into the region of Afghanistan. Their culture is thousands of years older than historians concluded. The Saraswati River was the land of the great North Indian kings. Today, the region is a dry, deep desert. As climate changed, the people migrated, carrying their knowledge north into the Indus Valley of Punjab.¹⁴

The Ṛgveda honors the most ancient gods of the Vedic culture. These are Indra (the Divine presence), Agni (fire), Soma (moon-water) and Sūrya (sun-light). These are the principal deities though many more are mentioned. The later major gods of Hinduism are mentioned indirectly in the Ṛgveda. Brāhma is mentioned as Bṛhaspati, the priest of the Gods; Viṣṇu is an aspect of Sūrya the sun God; and Śiva is mentioned in the form of Rudra, the father of the Gods.¹⁵ The other three Vedas are collections based mostly on the Ṛgveda. The Ṛgveda is written in the form of shorter mantras. The Sāmaveda takes the most important of those mantras and develops them into devotional chants or songs. The Yajurveda develops the verses of the Ṛgveda into rituals that purify, develop and ultimately unify personal consciousness with universal consciousness through offering the ego (separate self) into the sacred fire. The ātharva veda is the last of the Vedas and appears later. While keeping to the basic knowledge of the Ṛgveda, it is influenced by the culture of the time/place in which it was written and shows an influence from the Persian culture.¹⁶

Vedic knowledge, as all indigenous knowledge, was obtained through the process of direct perception. Direct perception is the process of merging one’s own self with the subject one is studying. In the process of becoming one with the subject, the truth of the subject is revealed to the seer. Hence, the knowledge obtained by the ancient ṛṣis was obtained through deep meditation on the subject of their interest as well as practice. The resultant knowledge was credited as a gift from the God or spirit (deva) the ancient ṛṣis may have seen in their meditation.

The Post-Vedic Age—The Purāṇa: 1500 BCE and 500 CE.¹⁷

The Purāṇa are comprised of 18 texts in all. The Purāṇa attempt to teach the knowledge of the Vedas through symbolic stories that can be understood by the masses and not just the scholars and priests. To be considered a Purana, a text must have five component parts. They must explore the story of creation (sarga) and the period of dissolution and recreation (pratisarga); they must explain the various eras (yugas) of creation (manvantara); and they must recount the history of the solar (sūrya) and lunar (candra) kings and their families (sūrya and candra vāṃśa). Each of the 18 Purāṇa recount similar information but often tell the stories somewhat differently and place emphasis on different aspects of the five components. The Purāṇa honor the Gods; Brāhma, Viṣṇu and Śiva. Six Purāṇa (texts) are dedicated to each of them, resulting in conflicts at times over which God (Brāhma, Viṣṇu or Śiva) is supreme in various stories.

The Epics (Mahābhārata, Rāmāyaṇa):1000 BCE – 300 CE

This is the time period of the writings of India epic tales of the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa. These epic tales continue the tradition of teaching knowledge through stories. Scholars debate the time of the writing of these great stories with a date range of 1000 BCE - 300 CE.

In the Mahābhārata, authored by the sage Veda Vyāsa, we see the prominence of Lord Kṛṣṇa for the first time. The Mahābhārata is considered both a historical and mythical story about the struggle between two related families for control of India. The two families are the Kauravas and the Pāṇḍavas, and the warriors on each side are cousins. The story takes places near Delhi in a city called Kurukshetra. Although many easy-to-read versions are available, the original text is a poem that is seven times longer than the Odyssey and the Iliad combined.¹⁸

The Mahābhārata contains the Bhagavad Gītā, often treated as a separate text but it is actually one of the sections of the Mahābhārata. The Bhagavad Gītā is considered to be among the most important spiritual texts of India. The Gītā tells the story of Arjuna, one of the five Pāṇḍava brothers, who chooses to have Kṛṣṇa by his side during the war rather than all of Kṛṣṇa's armies. The Gītā is a long poetic conversation between Arjuna and Kṛṣṇa through which the two explore the deepest questions of life and death and many of the spiritual concepts of Yoga. It is perhaps the oldest teacher-student story, with Arjuna as the student and Kṛṣṇa the teacher and incarnation of Lord Viṣṇu. The story of the Mahābhārata ends with the Pāṇḍavas (Arjuna and his four brothers) defeating the Kauravas. Kṛṣṇa dies at the end after being struck by an arrow. The five Pāṇḍavas then set out to find Heaven - the abode of Lord Indra. Along the way, four of the five brothers die. Only Yudhiṣṭhira, the oldest son survives. Upon reaching heaven, he is reunited with his brothers as well as his extended family and opponents, the Kauravas. Many more short stories are told within the great text and thus the Mahābhārata is the most famous story in all of India.

The Rāmāyaṇa is also a great poem though not as long as the Mahābhārata. Written by the sage Valmiki, it tells the story of the God Rama who is the heir of the kingdom of Ayodha. He wins the honor of taking Sita as his wife by being able to bend Śiva's bow. Sita is the daughter of the great King Janaka. However, Rama is subsequently banished from the kingdom and goes off to the forest with Sita and his half brother, Lakshmana, and spends the next 14 years in exile. While in the forest, Ravana, the king of the demons, kidnaps Sita and takes her to the capital city of the Demon kingdom, Lanka. Rama and Lakshmana then pursue Ravana in the hopes of rescuing Sita. Along the way, they encounter the Monkey Kingdom and enlist Hanuman, the general of the monkeys, to help them. Together, they wage war on Lanka and eventually Rama kills Ravana, rescues Sita and returns to Ayodha. Although Sita remained devoted to Rama and was never unfaithful, Sita is suspected of no longer being pure and she is banished by Rama to the forest. In exile, she is supported by the great ṛṣi Valmiki (who is also the story teller), and she gives birth to two of Rama's sons. Eventually the family is reunited, but Sita is so upset that her purity was questioned, she offers herself to the earth, which swallows her up. In Hindu literature, Sita is the iconic figure of devotion and an incarnation of Lakṣmī (the Goddess of prosperity and consort of Lord Viṣṇu). Rama is an incarnation of Lord Viṣṇu (The sustainer of creation).

The Buddhist Period: 300 BCE-700 CE

Buddhism was founded by the sage Siddharta Gautama. The term Buddha means awakened or enlightened one and is related to the term buddhi which means intellect. The Buddha lived in what is present-day Nepal. The path of Buddhism can be briefly summarized as the middle path, meaning a path that finds balance between extremes of selfishness and selflessness, between self-denial and self-indulgence. In modern times, there are different schools or sects of Buddhism with widely varying approaches to attaining enlightenment.

Buddhism spread from Nepal through India and Southeast Asia. In the Mahayana Buddhist tradition, the Medicine Buddha became the symbol of healing. The Medicine Buddha is considered to be an iconic historical figure who was a bodhisattva (one who attained enlightenment). The Medicine Buddha is a popular figure in China and in Tibet. Among Buddhist healers practicing Āyurveda in India, the Medicine Buddha holds a place similar to Lord Dhanvantari. During the peak of the Buddhist period, many physicians were Buddhists including the great Buddhist sage Nagarjuna, of the Mahayana Buddhist tradition. Āyurveda is believed to have spread outside of India's boundaries during this time. It was during the later part of this age that important Āyurvedic texts were written by Vāgbhaṭa. Considered a Buddhist Vaidya (practitioner of Āyurveda), he wrote the Aṣṭāṅga Hṛdayam and the Aṣṭāṅga Saṃgraha. These texts are widely used today in Āyurvedic medicine and are also utilized in Tibetan Medicine.

The University Period: 300 BCE - 1000CE

The first major university of fame in the region of India was Takshashila University, which is believed to have begun sometime around 300 BCE. It was located in what is today the Punjab province of Pakistan. At the time, steeped in Hinduism, the university was more of a gurukula, or a center where students lived and studied closely with a teacher. Some say that it was not a university by modern standards, as there was no academic scrutiny or standards, and scholars disagree as to whether or not it should be called a university. Nevertheless, it was a large and important center of learning. Students came from both the local region as well as from distant countries to study. It is believed to have housed about 10,000 students and teachers. Legend has it that education was free except for gurudakṣiṇā (a gift of money or otherwise) which was offered by the student to the guru at the completion of studies. The university was funded by the king and the wealthy class. It has been reputed that the famous Āyurvedic physician Caraka studied or taught at this university. The university operated until about 500 CE.¹⁹ Takshashila University was destroyed along with the entire city sometime around 500 CE as the Huns invaded the region. The Huns were a widespread Eurasian empire led by Attila the Hun.

Nalanda University was the other great university of early India. Founded about 500 CE, it is believed that during that time many Āyurvedic texts were translated into Arabic. Scholars came from around the world to Nalanda University, which was a centerpiece of education in India. Nalanda University was located in the region of Bihar (North East India) near Nepal and was a very large institution that is believed by historians to have housed some 10,000 students and teachers. It is also stated that Nalanda University was the first modern-style university of its kind in the world, with academic standards and oversight. The University was divided into two parts. One was a Buddhist study center and the other is believed to have been open to scholars of all faiths and traditions.²⁰ The following is a description found online at http://www.aicte-india.org/downloads/ancient.pdf. The center had eight separate compounds, ten temples, meditation halls, classrooms, lakes and parks. It had a nine-story library where monks meticulously copied books and documents, so that individual scholars could have their own collections. It had dormitories for students, perhaps a first for an educational institution, housing 10,000 students in the university’s heyday and providing accommodations for 2,000 professors. Nalanda University attracted pupils and scholars from Korea, Japan, China, Tibet, Indonesia, Persia and Turkey. Nalanda University was destroyed sometimes between 1000 and 1200 CE during the Muslim invasions. The huge library was said to have burned and smoldered for six months.

The Occupation Period: 1000 - 1947 CE

India was not a country in the modern sense until 1947. Prior to that, sections of India were ruled by various kings and authoritarian leaders, some indigenous and some foreign. Invasion and defense was a pattern of life when looked at over centuries and millennia, in which different rulers established systems of religion, conduct, education and systems of healing.

What is most often referred to as the occupation of India takes place around 1200 CE when the Muslims invaded India. This was after gradual intrusions that began as early as 700 CE. The origin of the Muslim invaders was somewhere near Turkey and Afghanistan. Over the next 700 years power would continually shift with additional invasions and various leaders taking control of different regions. Between approximately 1500 and 1850, most of India was ruled by, and a part of, the Mughal Empire formed by descendants of Gengis Khan, who originated near modern-day Uzbekistan.

During the Muslim / Mughal period, Muslim culture and medicine entered the Indian way of life and Āyurveda began to decline. The Muslim / Mughal invaders went on anti-Buddhist and anti-Hindu crusades resulting in a great loss of Indian culture and writings. This marked the beginning of merging Muslim/Arabian medicine with Āyurveda. The result was Ūnānī medicine. Ūnānī medicine is an amalgamation of Āyurvedic medicine, Arabian medicine and Greek medicine originating with the Muslim people. The first schools of Ūnānī medicine began to operate in India around 1200 CE. Ūnānī medicine is still taught and practiced in India today. About 1500 CE, the Europeans began to show interest in the region of India as a trade zone. Both the British and the French vied for power and began to meddle in the politics of the region supporting different tribes / rulers in their internal conflicts in the hopes of gaining influence and trade. The British and the French essentially fought a war with each other in India with the British being victorious and gaining control over the entire region by 1850 (India, Pakistan and Bangladesh), replacing Mughal rule with their own. They also established British culture including British medicine, as they closed all remaining centers of Āyurvedic education and outlawed its practice.

The Period of Independence (1947 - Present)

Āyurvedic schools today in India are still strongly allopathic. Some aspects of Āyurvedic education in India would be met with objection by many students of Āyurveda in the United States. This includes the use of animals in the testing of Āyurvedic drugs and the use of toxic chemicals in some herbal extracts. Graduates of Āyurvedic schools are able to prescribe some Western pharmaceutical drugs and perform minor surgery. While exceptions exist, the majority of students who study at Āyurvedic colleges in India today do so because they were unable to be accepted into a Western-style medical school. India is a country with a large population and the competition to get into good schools is intense. For them, the study of Āyurveda is a back door into the practice of medicine. Although some graduates from Āyurvedic schools are drawn to a more traditional practice, most graduates practice a form of Āyurveda that is predominantly allopathic in nature. This means that they do short consultations, little or no counseling and focus on prescribing herbs or drugs. Most of them do not practice living an Āyurvedic lifestyle. A small number utilize pañcakarma in their practices.

Over the past decade, there has been the start of a renaissance of interest in traditional practices in India. To a large degree, this is because the Western world awoke to the importance of