Fascinating Facts About Phytonutrients in Spices and Healthy Food: Scientifically Proven Facts

By Louis S. Premkumar

For centuries, there have been claims that healthy food garnished with exotic spices and condiments provides vital nutrients that help ward off diseases, especially preventable diseases such as diabetes and heart disease (hypertension, coronary artery disease) and promote longevity. The purpose of writing this book is to update the public about the health benefits of ingredients (phytochemicals) in spices and healthy food using existing scientific evidence. The ultimate proof of health benefits will be deciphered by the isolation and identification of specific phytochemicals acting on specific receptors in the body exerting their biological effects. The important point being emphasized is that if the physiological effect of an ingredient is glaring, it is considered to elicit a significant response. However, when the effect of an ingredient is significant, yet the effect is not readily perceivable then the usefulness goes unnoticed and can be questioned as a myth. For example, coffee has several ingredients, but only caffeine acting on the adenosine receptors stimulates the central nervous system and promotes wakefulness. Similarly, the specific active ingredient in hot chili pepper, capsaicin, activates a member of a recently identified family of receptors called transient receptor potential (TRP) channels. TRP vanilloid 1 (TRPV1), which is involved in certain modalities of pain, promotes the release of hormones in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Although, the bioavailability of the active ingredients is low, it is important to realize that these ingredients can cause significant local effects in the GI tract by preventing cholesterol regeneration by subduing microbiota, inhibiting precancerous growth by promoting calcium influx and stimulating nerve endings to transmit information and to release of gut hormones that are involved in regulating a variety of functions including appetite and satiety.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris US
• Release date: Mar 25, 2014
• ISBN: 9781493150021

Louis S. Premkumar

The author is a Cellular and Molecular Neurobiologist and a Professor of Pharmacology at SIU School of Medicine, Springfield, IL. The author is an expert on TRP channels and has extensively studied TRPV1 ion channel on which the active ingredient of hot chili pepper, capsaicin binds and brings about the actions. Increased expression of TRPV1 is implicated in certain modalities of pain and an ultrapotent TRPV1 agonist, resiniferatoxin is undergoing clinical trials for the treatment of debilitating chronic pain conditions. The author has written more than sixty peer-reviewed articles and has contributed chapters in five books.

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Copyright © 2014 by Louis S. Premkumar, PhD.

Library of Congress Control Number:    2013922064

ISBN:                  Hardcover                       978-1-4931-5001-4

                            Softcover                          978-1-4931-5000-7

                            eBook                               978-1-4931-5002-1

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

The Fascinating Facts about Ingredients in Spices and Healthy food—is for general health information only. The descriptions in this book are not to be used as a substitute for medical advice, diagnosis or treatment of any health condition or problem. Readers should not rely on information provided in this book for their own health problems. Any questions regarding your own health should be addressed to your own physician or other healthcare provider. The information provided in this book with the understanding that the author and publisher are not providing medical, psychological, or nutritional counseling services. The information should not be used in place of a consultation with a competent health care or nutrition professional. Liability for individual actions or omissions based upon the contents of this book is expressly disclaimed.

Rev. date: 03/19/2014

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Contents

Preface

Chapter 1:   Introduction

Chapter 2:   Basic Nutritional Requirements of the Organisms

Chapter 3:   Neurobiology of Appetite, Feeding, Satiation, and Satiety

Chapter 4:   Spices That Appeal to Nostrils (Olfaction) and Palate (Gustation)

Chapter 5:   Ingredients in Spices That Produce Health Benefits

Chapter 6:   Ingredients in Foods That Produce Health Benefits

Chapter 7:   Microbiota of the Intestinal Tract and its Role in Disease

Dedication

This book is dedicated to my parents. My father is 87 years of age and has never been admitted to a hospital. He keeps up a routine physical activity, eats nutritious healthy food garnished with spices consisting of vegetables, fruits, legumes and plenty of home made yogurt.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Somaja Louis, Kathleen Louis, Mahendra Bishnoi and Patricia Steffen for critically reading the manuscript.

Important Tables

in the Book

Table 1: Sources of Vitamins and their Effects

Table 2: Essential Minerals

Table 3: Triglyceride Levels

Table 4: Cholesterol Levels

Table 5: Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL) Levels

Table 6: Very-Low-Density Lipoprotein (VLDL) Levels

Table 7: High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL) Levels

Table 8: Blood Sugar Levels

Table 9: Normal and Abnormal Blood Pressure Measures

Table 10: Diet-Related Diseases in the United States of America

Table 11: Important Risk Factors for Heart Disease in US

Table 12: Life Style Modification to Control Blood Pressure

Table 13: Caloric Values of Milk

Table 14: of Sugar Content in Fruits and Their Glycemic Index

Table 15: List of Phytochemicals, Their Sources, and Health Benefits

Preface

For centuries, there have been implications that healthy food garnished with exotic spices and condiments provides vital ingredients that help ward off diseases and promote longevity. Obviously, it appears to be true based on the evidence that people who consume healthy, wholesome food as individuals or as a group in certain parts of the world, the so-called blue regions, have enjoyed health benefits, using longevity as a metric. For example, Seventh-day Adventists with their pure vegetarian diet have a lower incidence of heart disease, diabetes, and certain types of cancers; Kuna Indians in Panama, who consume large quantities of unprocessed cocoa-containing beverages, show lower incidence of heart disease; and finally, Inuit Eskimos of Iceland, whose staple food consists of large quantities of fatty fish with high levels of omega-3 fatty acids, suffer from lower incidence of heart disease and stroke. More recently, the Mediterranean diet, which consists of olive oil, fresh produce, fish, and wine, has been shown to reduce the incidence of grave diseases. However, these claims are marred with ambiguities of health benefits because large-scale randomized clinical trials have not been undertaken. Even reputed institutions, such as the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Federal Drug Administration (FDA), and European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), have promulgated skepticism.

The purpose of writing this book is not to add to the list of books that provides anecdotal evidences of the health benefits of spices and food ingredients but to undertake a thorough, objective analysis of the known active ingredients in spices and condiments and to critically evaluate the lines of scientific evidence that exist for the claims of health benefits, utilizing experimental observations and large evidence-based scientific studies, where available. The ultimate proof of health benefits will be presented by the identification of specific receptors and the effects brought about by active ingredients selectively binding to these receptors. Some of the evidences include scientific publications from my own laboratory.

If there are specific receptors in the body for the active ingredients in spices, although the health benefits cannot be demonstrated readily, they have to be taken seriously. The reason that health benefits have not been demonstrated convincingly for certain ingredients is because the effect may not be readily quantifiable. Furthermore, if there is a receptor, there has to be an endogenous ligand for it in the body. An example that is often referred to are the effects of opioids and cannabis. These are plant products whose active ingredients are morphine and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), respectively induce significant effects when ingested in minute quantities. Intriguingly, the compound cannabidiol in cannabis, which is considered to be inert, has recently revealed its efficacy as a wonder drug to treat refractory epilepsies in children. Morphine is used as a painkiller in intractable pain conditions. When its receptors are activated (more likely, when overactivated), pain is relieved but also contributes to euphoria (a sense of well-being) and engages the reward pathways in the brain circuitry that leads to drug dependence. Endorphin and enkephalin are the endogenous ligands for morphine receptors. A general sense of well-being is achieved when the levels of these peptides are increased by strenuous exercise—a natural pain reliever and a self-applauder of the accomplishment. This is the basis for people who indulge in compulsive exercise routines.

The important point being emphasized is that when the effect or the untoward effect is glaring, because of a perceivable or a measurable physiological response, an active ingredient may be considered to elicit a significant effect. However, even when the physiological effect is significant, but not easily perceivable, then the effect of a particular ingredient goes unnoticed, and the effectiveness can be questioned as a myth. For example, some vitamins are needed in very minute quantities (vitamin B12, 1 μg [1 part per million], and vitamin D, 5 μg), and there are no immediate measurable effects. However, lack of vitamins will manifest as a disease over a period of time; the lack of vitamin B12 will cause anemia, and the lack of vitamin D will lead to rickets in children.

This is an exciting time to write this book because now the specific receptors for several of these active ingredients are being identified, cloned, and characterized, which means a specific hypothesis can be proposed and tested experimentally to infer a scientific validity. For example, there are more than four thousand chemicals in dried tobacco leaves, but nicotine is the key ingredient that acts on specific receptors, which stimulate the central nervous system, engage the reward pathways, and compel one to smoke. Nicotine acts on specific neuronal acetylcholine receptors in the brain. Similarly, coffee beans have several ingredients, but caffeine is the ingredient that binds to specific adenosine receptors in the brain that normally inhibit neurotransmission, thereby reversing the inhibition and stimulating the neurons in the central nervous system. It is also necessary to identify the molecules other than the proposed active ingredients since there are several chemical molecules in these plant products.

For other spice ingredients, specific receptors are being identified. For example, the specific receptor for the active ingredient in hot chili peppers is capsaicin, which activates a member of a recently identified family of receptors called as transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, known as TRP vanilloid 1 (TRPV1). The receptor for the active ingredients in garlic (allicin), yellow mustard (allyl isothiocyanate), and cinnamon (cinnamaldehyde) has been identified to be TRP ankyrin 1 (TRPA1). Specific receptors for other ingredients will be identified in the future; of course, it is an evolving field. The idea is to provide a scientific basis for consuming food with spices and condiments that will provide health benefits by warding off diseases and promoting longevity. The active ingredient of turmeric is called curcumin. The claimed effects of curcumin range from relieving flatulence to curing Alzheimer’s disease and cancer. However, the bioavailability of curcumin is very low, meaning that when it is consumed orally, it is not available systemically to produce actions either because it is not absorbed or it is metabolized rapidly by the liver (known as first-pass metabolism). Several potent drugs have failed to enter clinical trials because of low bioavailability. It is important to emphasize that these ingredients can cause significant effects locally in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract by preventing absorption of certain nutrients and causing the release of gut hormones that are involved in appetite and satiety. Activation of TRPA1 channels causes the release of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), a potent hormone and can promote insulin release and control blood glucose levels. It is fascinating to learn that during a specific type of bariatric surgery procedure (Roux-en-Y) that involves transposition of the ileum (a part of the small intestine), which is directly connected to the upper end of the stomach, unexpectedly, the GLP-1 levels increased by severalfold. In patients who had been taking insulin for controlling diabetes, the surgery completely reversed the requirement of insulin within a few days before being discharged from the hospital. When food is directly exposed to the ileum, certain food ingredients are able to stimulate specialized cells in the small intestine called enteroendocrine cells, which cause the release of GLP-1. In normal conditions, these ingredients may not be available because of the high acidity (pH 2-3) of the stomach and due to other gastric enzymes that are released during digestion of food, which may destroy the active ingredients. It is also possible that the active ingredients are absorbed before reaching the ileum. This further emphasizes the local effects of food ingredients in the GI tract although they have low bioavailability. Some of the receptors activated by food ingredient are ion channels with high calcium permeability. Excessive calcium influx can cause cell death in rapidly proliferating cells and prevent cancer growth.

It is becoming evident that the commensal microorganisms dwelling in the gut have significant effect on the health benefits. Incidence of colon cancer has been associated with food habits, especially high intake of processed meat. High-fiber diet has been shown to decrease the incidence of colon cancer. Although, a clear genetic predisposition has been demonstrated for the chance of getting colon cancer, there are certain microorganisms that harbor the colonic flora, such as Bacteroides and Clostridium, that have been associated with increased incidences of cancer. Probiotic treatment has been shown to produce health benefits; most of the probiotics contain the bacterial genera Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium. The lower incidence of intestinal cancer in people in Asian countries eating food containing spices may be because of the antibacterial effects of the ingredients that subdue certain bacterial species. High-fat and high-sugar Western diet increased the Firmicutes and decreased Bacteroidetes as compared to low-fat and high-polysaccharide diet. Further, in obese individuals, there is an increased number of Firmicutes and lower number of Bacteroidetes; thus an elevated ratio between these organisms portends the tendency to develop obesity. Subduing microbiota by spice ingredients can partly explain the claim that spicy food protects one from gaining excess weight. A fascinating finding was recently published that carnitine from red meat, and its addition in high-energy drinks and health supplements, is metabolized by microbiota to trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), which is absorbed into the system. The blood levels of TMAO are more correlative than the levels of cholesterol with regard to predisposition to develop atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease.

Several monographs and books have been written, covering this topic extensively. Most of them list anecdotal evidences quoting published results, where experiments have been performed in in-vitro (outside the body) conditions by using unphysiological concentrations of active ingredients if known or using concentrated plant extracts to obtain positive results. These experiments are generally performed in in-vitro conditions using cell lines, which are immortalized and rapidly proliferating cells. There is some validity to the observations made in these experiments because higher concentrations of some of the active ingredients can be achieved when the ingredients are in direct contact with the cells of the GI tract. Further, oral consumption may have the ability to prevent the development of gastrointestinal cancers by eliminating rapidly multiplying cells by activating/inhibiting a variety of pathways. The role of ingredients subduing the microbiota can exert significant effects. Further, the bioavailability (the amount of the active ingredient that is absorbed and available for action in the body) is very low for some of these compounds and unknown for others. If one looks at the comments of the authors who have researched and written extensively in these areas, it is perplexing. A review by a well-known curcumin researcher concludes, Most of the biomolecules that curcumin binds to are integral components of cell signaling pathways and therefore may be pharmacologically relevant. However, most of the direct interaction data obtained to date are based on in vitro studies. Only limited studies have shown functional consequences of curcumin interaction. In many instances, what may occur in vivo is still not clear. In spite of numerous reports showing pleiotropic activity, curcumin has yet not been approved for treatment of any human disease, even though it has been reported to be safe for humans at gram dosages. Another book chapter concludes, In summary, ginger has been reported to possess diverse pharmacological properties, although its specific biological targets are largely unknown and remain to be determined. However, in spite of the lack of specific mechanistic information, use of ginger appears to be safe and its effects are mighty and amazing in its many applications.

In summary, food containing beneficial ingredients has to be consumed in moderation. The beneficial effects are not observed immediately but over a period of months or years. These ingredients make the food more palatable so that one can enjoy eating vegetables, greens, and legumes. All the healthy ingredients can prevent or delay developing a disease. Once a disease has manifested, the only option to combat is to consult with a physician and take appropriate medications that have been unequivocally proven to be effective in large clinical trials. For example, once a major coronary artery that supplies blood to the heart muscle is occluded, there are no remedies other than increasing the patency of the blood vessel by placing a stent or performing a bypass surgery to reroute the blood flow. Similarly, when pancreatic beta cells are destroyed and the production of insulin is ceased, one must take insulin injections to survive. However, following a healthy lifestyle and consuming food with healthy ingredients can reduce the dosage of the medications, along with the side effects of the drugs, allowing one to have a high-quality and productive life with normal life-expectancy.

Chapter 1

Introduction

Large and energetic animals, such as elephants and lions respectively, require large quantities of food to maintain their energy requirements for body mass as well as for physical activities. Herbivorous animals, like elephants, spend most of the day seeking food and consuming 650-770 pounds of food consisting of grass, shrubs, fruits, etc., per day, by living in the forests. They have developed a sense to consume the right kind of vegetation to fulfill the nutritional requirements of their bodies and to survive. It is hard to comprehend that the elephant is able to gather the right kind of vegetation that provides a diet enriched with minerals and vitamins necessary for its well-being. It is intriguing how well their taste buds are developed or how they know to get the right vegetation during different seasons. On the other hand, carnivorous animals, like lions, have to ingest raw meat in large quantities to maintain the energy required to subdue the next prey before they become too weak. This complex balance to fulfill the instinct of survival is fascinating. The smaller and less powerful animals, which become prey to larger animals, have to survive to maintain the ecobalance. The only incentive for animals is to survive, and their entire lives are dedicated to finding food that nourishes them to procreate and propagate their respective species. It is mind-boggling how these animals are able to acquire a balanced diet; perhaps nutritious food without supplements is sufficient for healthy living.

When it comes to human beings, the purpose of existence takes a totally different meaning although the basic premise is to survive by ingesting food and to procreate. As humans have evolved, the amount of time spent on finding food has dramatically diminished. Now, the availability of food is taken for granted; not much time is spent on finding food for survival. These days we try to obtain food that is more appetizing, rather than just to fulfill hunger. In the earlier days, man spent the entire day looking for food to survive whereas now only a miniscule amount of time is spent on finding food. The whole day, except for the time one is asleep, is available to dedicate to other activities of life. This has also changed the roles of men and women. In the olden days, men worked outdoors to find food, either by cultivating or by hunting, and women prepared the food for the men to nourish them and to make them continue the job of bringing food. Similarly, in certain parts of the world, some households (mainly in joint families) have access to food that is available as easily as in the West, but the amount of time spent on preparing food for the entire family still could take a whole day. These days processed, well-prepared, and precooked food is readily available, which changes the dynamics and the meaning of life in that one has ample time to pursue other interests.

Over the centuries, humans have refined the art of cooking, and food is now very appetizing. Since food tastes good, it is not consumed when one is hungry or when blood glucose levels dictate food intake. A tendency has developed to consume food all the time, not solely to fulfill hunger. Further, premade and appetizing food is readily available to consume and enjoy. Extra condiments, including spices, improve the quality of food. Spices provide the necessary aroma for food although most spices do not have taste or caloric value. There are some spices that do not have pleasant taste or aroma. For example, the main component of the hot chili pepper, capsaicin neither has taste nor smell, but it is pungent and imparts a zesty feeling. However, dried and ground chili powder has an attractive red color. It is not clear whether the color has anything to do with the desire to consume. Capsaicin specifically activates its receptors in the nerve terminals and generates action potentials; when the impulse reaches a certain part of the brain, the pungency is perceived. Further, a neuronal network activity is set up; a sense of satisfaction or fulfillment is achieved by stimulating the satiation and satiety centers in the brain.

The olfactory functions of certain animals have developed to an extent that they are able to detect an oderant of only a few molecules. Although some animals possess extraordinary senses of smell, it is not clear whether they possess the same senses of taste and the resulting perception of flavor. During evolution, humans have developed a sense of smell and taste, and the combination of both culminates in flavor. Further, during this process, humans have developed an exquisite sense of taste. For example, a perfectly grilled steak with some rawness of the meat according to one’s taste is more preferable and a perfectly crusted crisp stromboli or soufflé are made to perfection to satisfy one’s palate. A restaurant in Chicago exploits this characteristic by serving food on an air pillow that releases different types of aroma when the food is being consumed. It is fascinating that people who suffer from the loss of olfactory function (anosmia) seem to have lost the appreciation for food due to the inability to sense the flavors.

Texture of the food is a very important quality since food that has the right texture provides an extra incentive to take another bite. A perfectly crispy potato chip is tastier than the same chip being soft and soggy. Similarly, bakery products with the perfect texture impart a sense of craving. Freshly unpacked or freshly baked cookies taste better because of the crispiness. Even a mixture of textures by adding chocolate chips, marshmallows, or macadamia nuts in cookies or ice creams brings about a complete sense of satisfaction and craving. Also, the appearance of the food has a lot to do with the satisfaction it provides. All these attributes can be explained by the activation of different modalities of sensory perception due to the nerve endings that carry gustatory, olfactory, visual, chemical, thermal (both hot and cold), and mechanical sensations (such as crispiness) to the satiety centers of the brain and deliver the perfect input to experience the sense of satisfaction. The food industries exploit