Development of Gluten-Free Pasta

Development of Gluten-Free Pasta summarizes current progress in the development of gluten-free (GF) products, focusing particularly on pasta products. Presented in 11 chapters, the book focuses on the role of prebiotic fiber, hydrocolloids, fruit and vegetable by-product pomace and the physical, microstructural, sensory, and nutritional properties of the gluten-free pasta. The science of gluten intolerance is explained as well, with all relevant literature gathered and summarized in one place. Hence, this book lays a very solid foundation for the development of GF pasta which can be exploited as an essential therapeutic tool in the prevention of celiac disease. This comprehensive reference, written by world renowned scientists who elaborate on the study of different selected additives of plant origin, provides immense assistance in the field of research as many areas are still unexplored in the field of cereal science & technology.

• Provides a comprehensive application of pseudocereals, hydrocolloids, and prebiotic dietary fiber in the development of gluten-free pasta
• Brings holistic and integrated coverage of the role of plant derived ingredients in the development of gluten-free pasta
• Covers the utilization of pseudo cereals for food, nutritional, and economical security

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Jan 30, 2024
• ISBN: 9780443132377

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Gluten-free pasta's consumer appeal and qualities

Balarabe B. Ismaila,b, Ahmad Gambob, Umar Garbab, and Khadijah Abdulkadir Ayubc

a Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Agro-Food Processing, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China

b Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria

c Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China

1.1 Introduction

Globally, the production and consumption of foods have continued to evolve rapidly over the last few decades (Santeramo et al., 2018). Using innovative techniques to manufacture food products comprising health-promoting components, attract growing interest from researchers, the food industry, and consumers. The increasingly savvy consumers view foods as a medium for improving health and well-being, motivating the manufacturers to proactively respond through product development efforts to meet these needs (Küster-Boluda & Vidal-Capilla, 2017).

Gluten-free foods are products developed in response to the requirements of consumers with specific health problems, such as allergies and intolerance to wheat or celiac disease (CD) (Monzón et al., 2022). CD is an autoimmune disorder manifesting in several digestive symptoms, including chronic inflammation of the intestinal mucosa, villous atrophy, and several other clinical manifestations. Recent years have seen an increase in the prevalence of CD and non-CD gluten intolerance, and a gluten-free diet remains the most effective control measure against these intolerances. Therefore, for a gluten-free diet, the most crucial food safety aspect is the removal of gluten in natural and processed foods (Saturni et al., 2010). The global market potential of gluten-free products was estimated at $4639.13 and $7594.43 million in 2015 and 2020, respectively. The market was projected to grow with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) between 9% and 10.2% during 2016–22.

Pasta, a food product made conventionally from durum wheat semolina, is popular worldwide, thanks to its desirable properties, including high nutritional value, convenience, palatability, and stable and long shelf-life (Marti & Pagani, 2013). Recent product developments allow pasta to be enriched with fiber, minerals, antioxidants, and polyphenols. Besides, due to the growing number of CD and other health reasons, gluten-free (GF) pasta has been developed. GF pasta is increasingly produced and marketed globally. In 2022, the GF pasta market was valued at US $1.1 billion, with a forecasted 4.5% increase in growth rate over the next decade. The key countries with the highest revenue share were the United States, Italy, Switzerland, France, and Greece, and they are expected to remain the largest markets for GF pasta.

However, gluten provides technological and nutritional quality benefits in pasta production, such as being responsible for the dough's elasticity and extensibility. Thus, in its absence, GF pasta presents several quality defects, including loss of cooking quality, texture, and macro and micronutrients, as well as a reduction in overall nutritional quality. Besides, gluten-free foods are considered lacking in adequate proteins and dietary fiber levels but are often packed with excess calories and lipids. Therefore, GF pasta must be produced to meet the consumers’ health needs while achieving the expected nutritional and technological quality levels. Thus, over the years, scientists and technologists have continued to work towards improving the nutritional quality of gluten-free products such as GF pasta and creating products of comparable quality to the currently marketed conventional gluten-containing products (O'Shea et al., 2014). These interventions have led to the identification of various rich-protein and fiber sources, such as bean flours (Giuberti et al., 2015), whey concentrates (Phongthai et al., 2017), and egg albumen (Larrosa et al., 2016), seaweed powder (Monzón et al., 2022) considered as supplements to improved texture, cooking, and nutritional quality of GF pasta. How this affects the quality and consumer appeal remains a critical issue to be explored.

In this chapter, we discuss the qualities of GF pasta and consumer appeal, integrating the literature on the current strategies used to produce GF pasta and the effect those interventions have on quality and consumer appeal.

1.2 An overview of gluten-free pasta processing and quality characteristics

1.2.1 Ingredients and manufacturing process for gluten-free pasta

Pasta is produced using basic ingredients, mainly semolina and water, and processing steps including sequential hydration, mixing, forming, and drying operations (Fig. 1.1), making it one of the simplest cereal-based products (Nilusha et al., 2019). The final products’ quality depends on the properties of raw materials and the processing conditions (Marti & Pagani, 2013). However, the quantity and quality of gluten, a stored protein mixture in several types of cereal, including wheat, rye, barley, and derivatives, have been singled out as the most critical determinant of pasta properties. As such, high protein content and strong gluten (with regards to its visco-elasticity) are necessary during pasta processing to yield final products with optimal cooking quality (Marti & Pagani, 2013). Basic grains like wheat, barley, and rye contain an appreciable quantity of gluten that affects the core elements of most nations’ staple diets (Allen & Orfila, 2018).

Figure 1.1 Conventional pasta production process ( Nilusha et al., 2019).

Gluten is necessary for pasta production since it is the primary structural component that affects crucial quality elements, including dough rheology, product texture, and color (Motta Romero et al., 2017). However, gluten consumption causes celiac disease, a chronic enteropathy that damages the small intestine's mucosa through immune-mediated inflammation (Bouasla & Wójtowicz, 2019; De Arcangelis et al., 2020). Hence, consumer demand for gluten-free foods is rising as advocates for those with wheat allergies and gluten intolerance promotes them (Motta Romero et al., 2017; Ungureanu-Iuga et al., 2020). Furthermore, the benefits of a healthy diet, such as low fat and salt content, and high iron, vitamin, and carbohydrate content, are an added advantage (Çalişkan Koç & Pandiselvam, 2022).

Gluten-free pasta is produced using common ingredients, usually flour and/or starch from corn, rice, potato, or other tubers. Partial gluten substitutes are obtained from various protein sources, while gums and emulsifiers are also used to improve product consistency. The diversity of raw materials is essential for improving the quantity and quality of GF pasta (Marti & Pagani, 2013). Moreover, flours from amaranth, rice, millet, maize, modified cassava, quinoa, buckwheat, or their composites, have all been described as gluten-free, which works well for the GF pasta manufacturing operation (Asker & Mousa, 2021; Bouasla et al., 2017; Bouasla & Wójtowicz, 2019; De Arcangelis et al., 2020; Fiorda et al., 2013; Motta Romero et al., 2017).

Several techniques are employed to produce GF pasta, but the extrusion-cooking method appears to be one of the best (Bouasla & Wójtowicz, 2019; Marti & Pagani, 2013; Wójtowicz, 2011). Moreover, modifying processing variables, such as moisture content, temperature, and screw speed during extrusion cooking, enables the utilization of various ingredients and raw materials while yielding products with particular quality characteristics (Bouasla & Wójtowicz, 2019). Some hydrocolloids such as guar gum (GG), xanthan gum (XG), hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) are the most often utilized ones in GF pasta formulation for the improvement of rheological and cooking qualities (Larrosa et al., 2013; Milde et al., 2020).

1.2.2 Drivers for gluten-free products

Globally, the consumption of gluten-free food products experienced a significant increase over the last few years. This increase is the result of a number of factors, including firstly consumers’ growing concern over food allergies and intolerances, and secondly, the growth of the free from something and healthy notions (Fornari et al., 2021). The GF market remains among the most spectacular and vibrant in this setting. According to popular belief, GF has dominated the free-from market in the United States for more than 10 years (Fornari et al., 2021; Heller, 2009). According to a recent survey, 30% of American adults view gluten as a risky element, so they attempt to limit or avoid the consumption of gluten-containing food products (Fornari et al., 2021; Priven et al., 2015).

1.2.3 Quality properties of gluten-free pasta

As GF flour from cereals, such as rice, tubers, maize, millet, and sorghum, lacks gluten, a protein found in wheat, the cooking quality, and texture of GF pasta are undesirable by consumers (Asker & Mousa, 2021). Previously, it has been claimed that gluten-free batters and doughs posed difficulties during handling and were less cohesive and elastic, along with poor gas retention relative to doughs made with wheat. Hence, the final products from these batters and doughs are characterized by low volume, light crust, crumbly texture, thick crumb structure, bland, starchy flavor, little nutritional value, and a high staling rate (O'Shea et al., 2014).

Maize, potato, rice flours, and starches are some of the gluten-free flours currently in use. These flours are used as base flours because of their bland flavor and other undesirable sensorial effects on baked goods. Moreover, their nutritional value is typically low, and they have very little capacity for structure-building (O'Shea et al., 2014). In GF bread, for instance, because starchy raw materials and high water content are used, starch retrogradation and water migration from the crumb to the crust occur, and the product has a shorter shelf life compared with wheat bread. These primary factors speed up staling and increase the possibility of a microbially driven deterioration (Fratelli et al., 2021).

Although the research is sparse regarding the nutritional properties of GF pasta, it is commonly believed that they provide less adequate nutrients than conventional ones (Allen & Orfila, 2018). As there is currently no direct gluten replacement, gluten-free products, which are frequently unappealing, are made using a composite of refined and unfortified grain flours (such as maize and rice), hydrocolloids (such as hydroxypropyl methylcellulose), and proteins (such as egg white) (Allen & Orfila, 2018; Capriles & Arêas, 2014). According to a previous report, GF pasta contained twice as much fat, most of which is saturated than their gluten-containing equivalents, possibly due to the use of emulsifiers (mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids) and lipid-rich substances (animal and vegetable oils) in their formulation (Agostoni & Pellegrini, 2015). According to a recent analysis of more than 600 gluten-free foods sold in Australian supermarkets, it is doubtful that gluten-free meals will assist those who do not have CD. This is especially true given that these products are said to have lower protein, mineral, and vitamin contents than non-GF ones (Missbach et al., 2015). According to reports, gluten-free diets typically contain low levels of vitamins (vitamins B and D) and minerals (calcium, zinc, iron, and magnesium), with the levels usually below the recommended daily allowance (RDA) (Jnawali et al., 2016). Hence, substitute components with high nutritional and bioactive compound contents, such as wholemeal and pseudocereal flours obtained from gluten-free raw materials, were recommended to improve gluten-free product formulation (Aguiar et al., 2021).

1.3 Consumer attitude and perceptions about gluten-free pasta

Consumer and food relationships are influenced to a large extent by the former's attitude towards the latter following risks and benefits assessment. Moreover, consumer characteristics, food marketing strategy, new technologies, food image, and sensory attributes influence consumer perception of foods. Most importantly, health concerns can significantly affect these relationships between perceptions and attitudes (Martinho, 2021). Health goals motivate consumers to make healthy food choices, and those reflective and cognitive characteristics shape consumption (Thomé et al., 2021).

In recent years, the prevalence and awareness of CD have increased consumer interest in GF pasta (Susanna & Prabhasankar, 2013). Health-conscious consumers not only consider GF pasta good for patients with CD and non-CD gluten intolerance but also for other reasons such as weight loss strategy, production of a high protein diet, diabetes management, and autism.

Surprisingly, the prevalence of CD has not been given much attention in developing countries, likewise gluten-free products. However, such products are popular in developed countries like the United States, South Africa, the United Kingdom, Canada, and Europe. As CD's prevalence remain 1 in 100–133 people globally, the recommended treatment remains the consumption of gluten-free product (Masih et al., 2019). However, the major challenge in producing gluten-free products is to obtain a product with a desirable technological and nutritional quality akin to wheat-based products (Scarton & Clerici, 2022). Using different cereals in GF pasta production seems to be a viable strategy (Aínsa et al., 2021). However, tempering with the original ingredients usually harms products’ physicochemical, sensory, and technological properties. For instance, specific parameters, which include the cooking quality (cooking time, weight gain, hydration, and cooking loss) and texture, determined the quality and characteristics of cooked pasta. Therefore, the current product developments in GF pasta are geared towards maintaining quality and sensory parameters, as well as producing GF pasta with comparable quality to conventional durum wheat pasta, thereby, improving its consumer acceptability (Aínsa et al., 2021).

Mastromatteo et al. (2012) noted that modifying the traditional production process and optimizing the formulation of gluten-free pasta is often necessary to obtain a good quality product. The modification is done to counter the changes in rheological properties resulting from new ingredient incorporation. Clerici and Scarton (2022) also noted that many consumers report GF pasta to be more brittle in cooking with unattractive texture, color, and flavor, which are attributed to many factors, especially the lack of a gluten network. A study by Missbach et al. (2015) analyzed the nutritional quality of GF pasta and other gluten-free products in Austrian markets. The results indicated that the gluten-free product's protein, minerals, and vitamin contents were significantly lower than those made from wheat. Besides, the GF pastas comprise predominantly starchy carbohydrates with less dietary fiber.

To address technological and nutritional challenges while at the same time improving the health benefits and consumer acceptability of GF pasta, several ingredients were explored for use in GF pasta production. As shown in Fig. 1.2, these ingredients were classified as structurants, technological, and nutritional improvers (Scarton & Clerici, 2022). The structurants, which include different types of starch and proteins, produce a three-dimensional network in GF pasta to maintain shape during the drying process and after cooking. The technological improvers including emulsifiers, vegetable oils, and coloring agents, help to facilitate the shaping of GF pasta and improve their texture. In contrast, nutritional improvers enrich GF pasta with protein, fiber, micronutrients, and bioactive compounds, enabling GF pasta to maintain a low glycaemic index and provide several dietary benefits (Scarton & Clerici, 2022).

Figure 1.2 Different ingredients that are used to improve the nutritional, technological, and sensory properties of gluten-free pasta ( Scarton & Clerici, 2022).

Several researchers have determined consumer appeal, including their reactions, attitudes, and preferences toward GF pasta, with a specific focus on CD patients. By studying consumer appeal towards these products, manufacturers can predict consumers’ current and future expectations, enabling them to make products with desirable attributes. Such studies also provide manufacturers with data that can be used to develop a solid marketing and product development approach based on current consumer behavior trends (Masih et al., 2019).

For instance, Ozola and Straumite (2012) studied CD patients’ attitudes toward gluten-free products, the gluten-free products’ quality and availability in the Latvian market, and consumers’ purchasing habits. The result of the survey revealed consumer satisfaction with the level of quality in gluten-free flour, pasta, and flour blends available in the market. The GF pasta has been produced using different composite flour of cereals, legumes/pulses, and even nonplant products to achieve nutritional and quality benefits. For example, GF pasta was enriched with fish to achieve the health effects of Ω-3 fatty acids. However, compared with the commercially produced wheat pasta, the GF pasta enriched with fish presented a slight fishy aroma, flavors, and aftertaste. In addition, the cooking time was shorter (≈3 min) and values for hardness, gumminess, springiness, fracturability, and chewiness were lower and higher adhesiveness than wheat pasta (Ozola & Straumite, 2012).

According to their level of health consciousness about gluten-free products, customers’ consumption values, attitudes, and purchasing intentions were examined by Jung et al. (2017). Consumers with high health consciousness scored much higher on consumption ideals, attitudes, and buying preferences than the less health-conscious group. These findings provide a fundamental understanding of gluten-free products in terms of marketing tactics and consumer requirements.

Several recent studies also carried out consumer acceptability studies on GF pasta enriched with other ingredients (Table 1.1). For instance, the consumer acceptability of GF pasta enriched with egg albumen was determined by Milde et al. (2021). The results suggest that GF pasta with 1.5 g/100 egg albumen was the most acceptable formulation by consumers. The same product also recorded higher cooking quality values, desirable texture, and high protein and fiber contents relative to other formulations. Likewise, Rachman et al. (2023) determined the consumer acceptability of cassava-banana GF pasta enriched with soy protein isolate and egg white protein. While the enrichments provide GF pasta with improved protein digestibility and balanced amino acid profile, an egg white protein-fortified banana-cassava GF pasta received higher customer acceptability and buying intent than soy protein isolate. However, it can be pointed out from the results that only soy protein isolates provided increased polyphenolic content and antioxidant capacity of the GF pasta. Similarly, the addition of seaweed powder (6%) resulted in GF pasta with improved nutritional properties (protein, fiber, and fat contents), technological (improved cooking quality and textural properties), and consumer acceptability. The studies also show that these ingredients show a grand promise for use in part or as a whole to produce GF pasta with desirable quality properties. As part of improving the nutritional, technological, and sensory properties of GF pasta, these products are becoming medium for including functional ingredients with myriad health-promoting and disease-preventing properties, such as antioxidant activity, glycaemic index reduction, and increased nutrient digestibility (Demir & Bilgiçli, 2021; Monzón et al., 2022; Rachman et al., 2023).

Table 1.1

NE, not evaluated.

Navarro (2016) noted that the availability of gluten-free products in markets has drastically increased by 63% from 2012 to 2014. However, despite the rapid growth, gluten-free products face challenges of high cost, lack of awareness, and insufficient value chain. In India and the United States, high cost is one of the major problems associated with the product (Masih et al., 2019). For instance, gluten-free foods cost 242%–500% higher than regular products. However, this huge difference continues to decrease in countries like the United States because of improved availability. As more and more gluten-free products are developed due to rising demands, it is unsurprising that the market is witnessing a sharp increase of 136% from 2013 to 2015. Currently, sales from gluten-free products stand at $11.6 billion, representing a 6.5% share of the total food market. Moreover, apart from packaged gluten-free foods sold in grocery stores, food vendors like restaurants increasingly use gluten-free labels on their menus (Navarro, 2016).

1.4 Current and future perspectives

In recent years, many studies have investigated the quality and acceptability of gluten-free pasta and other similar products. Some studies have tested the potential application of different ingredients for improving the technological, nutritional, and consumer acceptability of GF pasta. For instance, soy flour, corn starch, buckwheat flour, sorghum, etc. in GF pasta processing (Susanna & Prabhasankar, 2013). Besides GF pasta, other gluten-free products such as biscuits, cookies, flour, snacks, and beers are now becoming popular, thanks to the big data, online articles, blogs, and reviews, which played an essential role in the recent increase in sales of these products (Masih et al., 2019).

A wide variety of gluten-free products produced from rice, maize, and various gluten-free flours are currently available for celiacs. Sadly, these products mostly exhibit poor cooking qualities, especially when compared to their wheat-based equivalents (Marti & Pagani, 2013). Moreover, Lee et al. (2016) showed that gluten-free products are costly and hard to find, which places a heavy burden on the patient population trying to manage the disease. In the Brazilian capital city's retail stores, gluten-free goods’ availability, costs, and nutritional makeup were assessed. The results showed that the variety and availability of gluten-free goods were low, while their costs were high (do Nascimento et al., 2014). Future studies focusing on producing GF pasta with desirable nutritional and technological properties at a reasonable cost will be