Biosensors for Foodborne Pathogen Detection: A Rapid Detection Approach

By Manoj Kumar Pal

Biosensors for Foodborne Pathogens Detection: A Rapid Detection Approach covers rapid and accurate measurement for biosensing analysis. This book is organized in a systematic way, covering basic introduction and advanced approaches in biosensing and their use in the detection of food pathogens. This compilation includes chapters such as Methods, techniques and latest developments in the detection of foodborne pathogens; Basic principles in Biosensors and bioelectronics for the foodborne pathogens; Various bio-recognition receptors used in the biosensors; Nanomaterials and signal amplification in biosensors for foodborne pathogens; electrochemical biosensors for foodborne pathogens; Optical biosensors for foodborne pathogens, and more.

This book act as a comprehensive resource for researchers or scientists working in food safety, especially in microbial food spoilage detection using biosensors.

• Explores biosensing in the detection of food pathogens, from basic introduction to advanced approaches
• Covers advancements in electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) based biosensors because of its enhanced sensitivity and specificity
• Brings the role of nanotechnology in biosensing

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Mar 14, 2024
• ISBN: 9780323955874

Book preview

Preface

Manoj Kumar Pal

Welcome to Biosensors for Foodborne Pathogen Detection In this book, we delve into the fascinating world of biosensors and their application in the crucial field of food safety. Foodborne pathogens pose a significant risk to public health, leading to numerous cases of illness and even fatalities worldwide. Rapid and accurate detection of these pathogens is essential for preventing food contamination and ensuring the safety of consumers. Biosensors, with their ability to detect and identify specific biological targets, offer a promising solution for timely pathogen detection.

This book is a comprehensive guide that explores various aspects of biosensors used specifically for detecting foodborne pathogens. The chapters cover a wide range of topics, beginning with an overview of foodborne pathogens and the contamination of food. We then delve into the principles and workings of different types of biosensors, including electrochemical biosensors, surface plasmon resonance-based optical biosensors, and the utilization of CRISPR-Cas9 technology in biosensors. Additionally, we highlight the role of nanomaterials in enhancing the performance of biosensors.

One of the key focuses of this book is to present the current methods employed in biosensors for foodborne pathogen detection. We discuss the advancements in this field, showcasing the latest technologies and their applications. By examining the challenges and opportunities in the field, we aim to contribute to the ongoing efforts to enhance food safety and protect public health.

Our goal is to provide researchers, students, and professionals in the field of biosensors with a valuable resource that consolidates the knowledge and advancements in foodborne pathogen detection. We hope that this book serves as a catalyst for further research and innovation in developing rapid and reliable biosensors for food safety. We extend our gratitude to the contributors who have generously shared their expertise and insights in their respective chapters. Their collective effort has made this book possible, and we are immensely grateful for their contributions. We invite you to embark on this journey through the realm of biosensors for foodborne pathogen detection.

Chapter 1

Food-borne pathogens and sources of contamination

Maria-Eleni Dimitrakopoulou¹, Zoi Kotsiri¹ and Apostolos Vantarakis²,    ¹Department of Public Health, Medical School, University of Patras, Patras, Greece,    ²Public Health, Public Health Laboratory, Medical School, University of Patras, Patras, Greece

Abstract

Incidents of foodborne illnesses are continuously reported around the world. Foodborne diseases are caused by pathogens such as bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses and are categorized either as infection or intoxication illnesses. Contaminated food has harmful effects on human health, as it can cause a wide range of symptoms, from diarrhea to cancer. Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, species of Salmonella or Shigella, Adenovirus, and Cryptosporidium are well-known pathogens that use food products as a vehicle of transmission. Therefore, as foodborne incidents remain a problem for public health, scientists place particular emphasis on innovative techniques for the detection of pathogens. Application of these alternative methods in the food industry can provide rapid and accurate results regarding food safety. Additionally, scientists indicate that studying foodborne pathogen pathways to eliminate the global pressure on health systems and the environment is an urgent need as well. Besides, the survival of microorganisms in food products and possible sources of contamination have become important issues for the food industry and quality authorities. Based on the literature, contamination sources may differ among food types. Hence, upgraded food safety management plans, including risk analysis strategies, should be implemented in the food industry.

Keywords

Foodborne pathogens; food contamination; food poisoning; foodborne diseases

1.1 Introduction

Pathogens in food threaten animal-derived food items and the food supply, with severe economic effects. Microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, or parasites are considered responsible factors for food-borne illnesses. The consumption of infected food has been considered the main obstacle to public health. It is treated as an important obstacle to socio-economic progress all over the world. More than 200 incidents, according to the World Health Organization (WHO), have been provoked by risky products containing dangerous bacteria, parasites, viruses, or any compounds, and they present a wide range of symptoms, from diarrhea to cancer. Contaminated food has harmful effects on human health, and it has been estimated that about 600 million people get sick. According to surveys, animals were reported as transmission vehicles in more than 70% of incidents of food-borne diseases (Focker & van der Fels-Klerx, 2020).

Microorganisms like Salmonella spp., Campylobacter, Escherichia coli, and Listeria spp. have been recorded by authorities such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), WHO, and European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) as the ones that are the most common pathogens in the food chain. Studies on viruses and parasites have shown that hepatitis A (Food and Authority, 2018) is a prevalent virus and Cyclospora is one of the most common parasites. Symptoms mainly include nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. The average time for symptoms to appear is one day (Table 1.1).

Table 1.1

A critical concern in controlling the spread of the diseases that are transmitted is to obtain a fast and precise protocol for the evaluation of pathogens’ detection. Regarding public health, there is an urgent need for the application of any tool that could discriminate against pathogens. Additionally, scientists indicate that studying their pathway to eliminate the global pressure on health systems and the environment is an urgent need as well. There are two main pathways for the development of illness: first is the ingestion of contaminated food and the multiplication of pathogens in humans, and the second is the production of bacterial toxins in food and the ingestion of the food, including toxins (Das & Mishra, 2022).

1.2 Bacteria

1.2.1 Campylobacter spp.

Campylobacter spp. belongs to gram-negative bacteria. It is normally found as an S-shaped organism and can provoke an illness called campylobacteriosis (Igwaran & Okoh, 2019). The conditions required for its optimal growth are temperature of 42°C–45°C and a pH range of 6.5–7.5. For this pathogen, over 246,000 human cases have been reported in the European Union annually. However, the real number is supposed to be closer to 9 million incidents per year. In the European Union, EFSA has tried to quantify the loss in productivity for the citizens and the impact on the health systems at around 2.4 billion euros per year (EFSA, 2011).

The usual transmission route for campylobacteriosis is through the intestines of healthy birds and raw poultry meat that is contaminated. It can also be detected in pigs and cattle (Bailey et al., 2018). Consuming undercooked poultry or foods that come into contact with raw poultry is the main transmission method for human infection.

Campylobacteriosis is a zoonotic illness that can be transmitted directly or indirectly between animals and humans (Osbjer et al., 2016). Symptoms of infection vary for each person but often include fever, diarrhea, and abdominal cramps. The time it takes for food poisoning is usually 2–5 days, but in some cases, it has been reported as 1–10 days. Safe handling in the processing of raw meat and other raw food ingredients can prevent or reduce the risk of food contamination. There is an urgent need for agricultural handling and the application of safe practices for farmers during food production. Food industries must implement inspection systems at meat processing plants to monitor pathogens in food processing.

Campylobacteriosis has provoked about 236 outbreaks worldwide. Overall, 2381 people have been infected from 2010 to 2017. The year 2020 changed the balance in society in terms of recorded cases. By this, we mean the infection by the Corona virus and the exit of the United Kingdom from the European Union (Bhowmick et al., 2020). The impact of the pandemic on food security was the vertical increase of sampling spots in meat and meat products, comparing the samplings to the last few years. The reflection of the directive from Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2019/627 establishes the recording of the Campylobacter observation as compulsory.

1.2.2 Escherichia coli

E. coli is a rod-shaped, gram-negative bacterium. It is regularly motile by flagella, does not form spores, and belongs to the family of Enterobacteriaceae.

Ιn its biochemical characteristics, it belongs to the category of oxidase-negative bacteria and increases by consuming glucose, acetate, and simple carbon (Bednarska et al., 2015). E. coli can grow at temperatures of 23°C–40°C, with an optimum of 37°C under aerobic conditions. It can grow in a pH range of 4.5–9. Also, although it accounts for only a small proportion of the overall gut flora and exists without compromising host health, it is found almost in the whole human intestinal tract. E. coli is considered to be the most frequent cause of acute urinary tract infections and sepsis (Lee et al., 2018).

Acute enteritis is the result of infection by E. coli and could be in both humans and animals. Two infections are widely known as traveler's diarrhea which is a disease affecting humans, and bloody diarrhea, which refers to hemorrhagic colitis (Makhado et al., 2022). Symptoms begin 1–3 days after exposure. Hazardous types of E. coli include enterotoxigenic, enteroinvasive, enteropathogenic, and vero cytotoxigenic. Furthermore, E. coli is considered a useful marker of fecal pollution because, in its life cycle, it is introduced into water, which is why it can imprint environmental changes (Kumar et al., 2020). In other words, for that fact, it has a significant role both in water and food safety. The main reason is that E. coli remains in water environments by creating biofilm on rough surfaces. For instance, the handling of E. coli 0157 is treated with chlorine. Generally, it has been shown to be sufficient for its inactivation (Owoseni, Olaniran, & Okoh, 2017).

The most recent outbreak was located in four states in the USA: Alaska, Washington, Oregon, and Ohio. A total of 10 people were infected with the outbreak strain of E. coli O157:H7. The real number of cases is supposed to be much higher than the recorded one, and the outbreak may have been extended to neighboring states. This disease has been reported in the last few months of 2021. People with a median age of 59 and an age range of 26–79 years were all female, at a percentage of 100%. From the current information, four were hospitalized, and two others developed a type of kidney failure known as hemolytic uremic syndrome. In Washington, one death was reported by this infection (cdc.gov).

Stakeholders and local authorities in public health questioned people about their food preferences during the week before they developed symptoms. From the initial sample, nine people reported eating organic power greens sold under the Simple Truth Organic brand and the Nature’s Basket brand. Both brands of organic power greens have the same mix of leafy greens: organic spinach, mizuna, kale, and chard (cdc.gov).

The FDA conducted a traceback research on the products of interest. Farmville from both the Yuma and Salinas was identified as having supplied products that could have been available to consumers. Therefore, no single production code was identified by the traceback. During the FDA’s investigation, environmental samples were collected near farms identified in the traceback in the Yuma and Salinas positive samples for Shiga-toxin-producing E. coli. However, they were all different strains and did not match the strain identified in this outbreak.

1.2.3 Salmonella spp.

The bacterium Salmonella is an enteric bacterium, and it is classified as a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae. It belongs to a group that incorporates gram-negative bacteria, and it is a facultative anaerobic rod-shaped bacillus (Vinay et al., 2015). Salmonella spp. needs pH conditions ranging from 3.8 to 9.5, with an optimum pH of 7 and temperature conditions ranging from 6°C to 46°C.

Most of the diseases are found in animals that don’t show any symptoms, and they are transmitted to people by consuming contaminated food. A great importance is attached to the reservoirs of the presence of zoonotic diseases with the most important being this one on the intestinal tract of animals, especially those that are consumed by humans. Despite the fact that different cases have been reported, most of them demonstrate transmission from the swallowing of contaminated food and consequently the digestive system as the major route of transmission and infection in humans (Michael & Schwarz, 2016).

Salmonella spp. is considered a biological threat to foodstuffs in terms of public health. It is a commonly reported pathogen concerning food-borne illnesses, with recorded incidents worldwide. Based on the literature, symptoms of salmonellosis occur 12–72 hours after infection. Culture methods, known as the gold standard method, are widely used for pathogen detection, which takes 2–5 days (Mellou et al., 2021). However, this method is considered to be laborious, not very accurate, and not very rapid. In the majority of incidents, there is no need for treatment, although symptoms may last 4–7 days (Bottichio et al., 2016).

Signs usually include a plethora of symptoms, often similar to the flu. Patients may develop fever, diarrhea, nausea, and abdominal cramps. In some cases, the symptoms may be intense, and they include a high fever for days, aches in the stomach, persistent headaches, lethargy, a rash, and blood in the urine or stool. People who have persistent symptoms may die eventually (Nadi et al., 2020). In a report from a government agency in the U.S., they mentioned that around 450 humans in America annually pass away from severe salmonellosis.

The last outbreak occurred in late 2021. A total of 32 cases were reported. There were about four hospitalizations, and no deaths were recorded. The first illness onset was stated on June 10 and the last on August 18. The outbreak was related to the consumption of packaged vegetables from the company’s Controlled Environment Agriculture indoor hydroponic operation. From interviews with patients, 26 of the initial sample (27) stated that they had consumed salads in their diet before the onset of any symptoms, whereas 20 interviewees out of 24 have reported that they consumed prepackaged and ready-cut leafy greens. This brand’s products were officially recorded in 14 individual cases. On July 15, 2021, BrightFarms recalled the batches they had produced in the llinois area, and that included prepackaged salad. The rural grange carried these products in Western states. On July 21, 2021, in the region of the upper Midwestern United States, Michigan was the last to receive an order for a product recall.

With the above results exported, it was shown that an agricultural unit supplied packaging companies with cut-ready salads. From the most recognizable preparation company, it became possible to research and confirm that all the patients had consumed the product of the same company.

1.2.4 Listeria monocytogenes

Listeria monocytogenes has the shape of a rod and is a facultative anaerobic organism. It belongs to the group of gram-positive bacteria, and it doesn’t produce endospores. It is a ubiquitous bacterium that is widely distributed in all types of environments (Takahashi, Yokozawa, & Oda, 2022). Growth of Listeria occurs at temperatures ranging from 1°C to 45°C, with the optimum range being 30°C–37°C and pH ranging from 4.0 to 9.6.

The main route of L. monocytogenes transmission is through soil and water. In that way, it can reach from plants to animals and eventually to the food chain (Linke et al., 2014). The bacteria can survive in extreme conditions and live even in the soil for many days up to months. L. monocytogenes is reported as one of the major pathogens in food products. Studies have been applied to detect it in matrices like seafood and beverages (Miceli & Settanni, 2019).

Listeriosis is usually related to food products that are subject to processes that could be consumed without further treatment. The risk of spreading the disease depends on the effectiveness of the control mechanisms, which are applied by the respective companies. In those cases, they apply a variety of food processes that include the addition of flavorings, comminution, binders, the addition of preservatives, fermentation, smoking, curing, and drying.

The aforementioned stages can decrease the pathogen concentration in ready-to-eat food at the time of ingestion of contaminated food through bacterial growth retardation. The guidelines that will lead to the design of an effective procedure and the type to be defined for each food are defined by the efficacy of the control measures (Kureljusic et al., 2019).

Infections associated with Listeria, especially in vulnerable groups such as pregnant women and babies, could lead to serious health problems. Complications with their pregnancy, miscarriage, and stillbirth have been reported as a consequence of listeriosis. Additionally, this foodborne pathogen can affect babies, and in some cases, result in lifelong health problems or even death. It is suggested that women with listeriosis symptoms such as nausea or stiffness in the neck should contact their doctor and describe what they ate (Li et al., 2020). For Listeria, the time of onset varies in each case.

The FDA, with the CDC and stakeholders, is examining an outbreak due to L. monocytogenes contaminations potentially linked to prepackaged salads from the firm Dole in different countries. According to the CDC, 16 people who were infected with L. monocytogenes have been reported in 13 states. The symptoms of the disease started in a period of time from August 16, 2014, up to October 17, 2021 (cdc.gov).

1.2.5 Vibrio cholerae

Vibrio cholerae has a comma shape and it is a facultative anaerobe bacterium. It belongs to the group of gram-negative microorganisms (Keddy et al., 2013). It is a mesophilic organism with optimum growth temperature ranging from 20°C to 45°C and optimum pH of 6.5 and 9.

The bacteria naturally prefer living in brackish water and in seawater. They bind on macrobenthos fauna that contain chitin on their surface (e.g., crabs, shrimps). There are a variety of Vibrio strains, but O1 and O139 are responsible for outbreaks. In the last few decades, V. cholerae O1 has been responsible for many outbreaks, and V. cholerae O139 has affected people in the past, but in some cases, it has been identified on a limited scale. These two strains have exactly the same