Next-Generation Smart Biosensing: Nano-Platforms, Nano-Microfluidics Interfaces, and Emerging Applications of Quantum Sensing

Quantum Sensing at the Interface of Nanotechnology Integrated Microfluidics provides broad multidisciplinary coverage of innovative quantum sensing technologies suitable to industries in the engineering, biomedical, healthcare and environmental sectors. Sections discuss emerging quantum sensing and with an introduction to microfluidic devices, smart sensors, the role of nanotechnology, smart sensing, and the role of quantum technology and artificial intelligence for nano-enabled microfluidics. Sensing technologies and nano-enabled microfluidics and their biomedical and industrial applications are explored. This will be a useful resource for those in research and industry interested in biotechnology, nanotechnology, sensing technology and their applications in multidisciplinary fields.

• Provides an introduction to the types of microfluidic devices, smart sensors, and the role of nanotechnology
• Covers smart sensing for multidisciplinary sectors
• Explores the challenges and prospects of nano-microfluidics systems

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Jan 14, 2024
• ISBN: 9780323972727

Book preview

Preface

Nano-platforms, nano-microfluidics interfaces, and emerging applications of quantum sensing

Cancer has long been one of the most formidable adversaries in the realm of healthcare, challenging scientists, physicians, and researchers to devise innovative strategies to detect, understand, and ultimately combat this complex and multifaceted disease. The convergence of nanotechnology with cutting-edge diagnostic techniques has ushered in a promising dawn of hope for patients and oncologists. Our previous book, Nanotechnology in Cancer Management: Precise Diagnostics Toward Personalized Health Care, is a testament to the remarkable strides made in our ongoing battle against cancer. It provides us a comprehensive journey through the intricate network of early-stage cancer diagnostics and heterogeneity of tumors by exploring the world of cancer biomarkers and the technologies employed to uncover them. This book was a testament to the dedication of countless researchers, scientists, and healthcare professionals who strive to make personalized cancer care a reality. It is our hope that the knowledge and insights contained within these pages will not only inform but also inspire future advancements in the field of cancer diagnostics and management.

Building upon the success of our previous book, Nanotechnology in Cancer Management: Precise Diagnostics toward Personalized Health Care, which highlighted the incredible progress in cancer diagnostics and management, we are now thrilled to present Next-Generation Smart Biosensing: Nano-Platforms, Nano-Microfluidics Interfaces, and Emerging Applications of Quantum Sensing. This new reference is another collaborative effort by the same esteemed experts who are continuously pushing the boundaries of biosensing. In this book, we shift our focus to the rapidly evolving world of nanotechnology-integrated microfluidics and quantum sensing, exploring their multifaceted applications. It is our hope that this latest work will not only inform but also inspire further advancements in the field of biosensing, much like our previous endeavor did for cancer diagnostics and management.

The world of biosensing has experienced a revolutionary transformation, driven by the relentless pursuit of innovation and the collaboration of dedicated experts. As editors, we are privileged to introduce to the scientific community about cutting-edge world of smart biosensing, where the convergence of nanoscience, microfluidics, and quantum technology is reforming how we perceive and interact with our environment. This book serves as a passage, linking the seemingly distinct fields of physics, chemistry, engineering, biology, biomedical, computer science, and nanotechnology, offering insights that will empower researchers, professionals, and students alike.

Smart sensors, a hallmark of modern engineering, have become increasingly sophisticated and versatile. They enable us to gather data with unprecedented precision, reliability, and speed. This book delves into the intricacies of these sensors, revealing how they have been seamlessly integrated into nano-platforms to create powerful tools for biosensing. We explore the synergy of miniaturization and intelligence, unveiling their role in transforming the landscape of diagnostics, monitoring, and beyond.

Nano-microfluidics interfaces, another vital dimension of this journey, represent the seamless fusion of nanotechnology and fluidic systems. The world of nano-microfluidics has demonstrated its potential to revamp the way we handle rare samples, perform assays, and gain insights into biological processes. These interfaces empower us to manipulate, transport, and analyze biological substances at scales previously unimaginable as organ chip technology and soft robotics have revolutionized the healthcare industry.

Quantum sensing is a transformative technology harnessing the principles of quantum mechanics to deliver unparalleled precision in detecting physical and chemical phenomena. By leveraging superposition and entanglement, quantum sensors represent a revolutionary leap in sensing capabilities, finding diverse applications in fields such as medical diagnostics, environmental monitoring, navigation, quantum computing, and national security. From ultrasensitive biomarker detection in medical diagnostics to precise measurements of gravity variations in geophysics, quantum sensing promises to redefine our ability to understand, monitor, and manipulate the world around us, pushing the boundaries of what's possible in the realms of science, technology, and the environment.

This new book journey begins with a chapter about the exploration of emerging quantum sensing technologies, underlining their potential to revolutionize various industries, including engineering, healthcare, and environmental management. We discuss the fundamentals of microfluidic devices, smart sensors, and the pivotal role that nanotechnology plays in shaping the future of biosensing. With quantum technology and artificial intelligence as guiding stars, we traverse the territory of nano-enabled microfluidics, opening doors to groundbreaking applications that excel at established boundaries. In this book, we seek to answer some vital questions: How can quantum sensing redefine our approach to healthcare diagnostics, environmental monitoring, and personalized medicine? What challenges and opportunities lie ahead as we venture into the new realm of organ on a chip, soft robotics, etc., of nano-microfluidics? The application of smart sensors in various fields like 3D printing, smart agriculture, industrial sectors, medical diagnostics, data security, etc. has been discussed. We aim to deliver the knowledge and visions necessary to address these new technologies.

To accomplish these tasks, we have enlisted the expertise of an international and multidisciplinary group of scholars, each offering their unique perspectives on the convergence of quantum sensing, microfluidics, and nanotechnology. Their contributions form a rich source of knowledge, presenting the latest research findings, innovative strategies, and practical applications that promise to redefine the world. We believe that Next-Generation Smart Biosensing will serve as an invaluable resource, enabling readers from research and industry backgrounds to stay at the forefront of this dynamic field. In this book, we explore the myriad of possibilities of quantum sensing and nanotechnology-integrated microfluidics offered to diverse sectors, from healthcare to environmental management.

We extend our great appreciation to our contributors, whose dedication and expertise have made this book possible. We hope that this multidisciplinary book serves as a source of inspiration and knowledge, fostering new ideas, collaborations, and discoveries that will ultimately redefine the future of biosensing.

Kamil Reza Khondakar, Assistant Professor at the School of Technology, Woxsen University, India

Ajeet Kaushik, Assistant Professor of Chemistry at Florida Polytechnic University, United States

Chapter 1: Perspective of quantum technology

Towards a smarter world

Kamil Reza Khondakar     School of Technology, Woxsen University, Kamkole, Telangana, India

Abstract

Quantum technology has challenged the human mind to simplify complex systems. The laws of quantum physics have ushered novel properties of quantum states to unravel the mystery of the subatomic world. The innovative properties of quantum systems have achieved ultrahigh sensitivity and nonlocal correlation that have wide application to the development of supercomputers, faster communications systems, high-quality sensors, and sophisticated metrological devices. In search of greater sensitivity, high-precision measurement, and superresolution imaging, there are fundamental limits imposed by the laws of classical physics. The discovery of quantum tools described in this review (qubit system, quantum tunneling, single electron state, entangled states, supercooled atoms, single-photon or multiphoton states, etc.) explores the technological advantages of sensors over classical systems showing their unique characteristics. The application of this novel quantum sensor system has shown incredible precision in various fields harnessing the fundamentally quantum mechanical nature of both the system being measured and the devices that are used to measure the system. The emergence of atomic clocks, quantum computers, atomic magnetometers, quantum tunneling composite, single electron imaging, etc. has revolutionized the nanotechnology/nanophononics industry.

Keywords

Entangled state; Quantum sensors; Quantum system; Qubit; Single electron

1. Introductions

The development of quantum physics theory in the early 20th century is transforming the technological world (Bruss & Leuchs, 2019; Dowling & Milburn, 2003). The fundamental concept of quantum theory has challenged the century-old concept of classical physics about the dual nature of the material (wave as well as particle nature) (Landau & Lifshitz, 2013; Moyal, 1949). The discovery of a photon particle that has no mass and no charge but travels at the speed of light composed of electromagnetic radiation has established the very fundamental concept of quantum theory (Tromberg et al., 1993; Tu et al., 2004). Due to the tiny size of the photon, the wave nature of this particle becomes very significant and plays a vital role in quantum mechanics. Interestingly, the momentum of photons has been observed even though they do not have significant mass, which led to the development of high-resolution sensing instruments like an optical tweezer, single photon detector, and scanning tunneling microscope (Hadfield, 2009; Senellart et al., 2017). The emergence of a new concept that characterized the properties of particles like quantized energy, entanglement, and superposition in quantum science has confronted the fundamentals of classical physics (Aerts & Sassoli de Bianchi, 2016; Wineland, 2013). The coexistence of waves, as well as the particle nature of an element in a quantized state, has brought new ways of thinking and technology. These new concepts of quantum technology have emerged and found application in communication, computing, defense, metrology, biomedical sensors, spectroscopy, etc. (Foy et al., 2020). Classical computing performs one calculation at one time, but for quantum computing many calculations occur simultaneously to expedite and execute multiple tasks.

The uncertainty principle in quantum mechanics was proposed by German physicist Werner Heisenberg who states that the position and the momentum of an object cannot be measured exactly at the same time (Heisenberg, 1949). This theory is applicable to small masses of subatomic particles like electrons and protons. He explained the uncertainty principle through an experiment photographing an electron by a light particle which can tell the position of the electron but not its momentum. The birth of squeezed state has enabled current technology to precisely measure the position of the subatomic particle by minimizing the uncertainty. It utilizes quantum states for measurements that are extremely sensitive to disturbances—this means that they also have the potential to become extraordinarily sensitive measuring instruments.

The development of quantum theory has also opened new fields like hybrid quantum computing, new functional materials, faster algorithms, and software development that will lead to novel technologies. The new prodigies of quantum mechanics will enable faster quantum information science, which will develop new systems to store, transport, analyze, and protect data in real time. Recently, in the year 2019, Google claimed to have achieved a giant leap toward developing a highly powerful quantum computer whose processor can perform a task in 200 s that would take the most advanced classical computer approximately 10,000 years (Porter, 2021).

Another interesting field is quantum sensing, which has broad applications in various discipline (Broadway et al., 2019; Tsang et al., 2011). T Gefen et al. investigated the field of quantum technology to explore the use of quantum phenomena to measure a broad range of physical quantities in quantum metrology and quantum sensing (Gefen et al., 2019). Broadway et al. reported about an in situ quantum sensor (a stress sensor) in diamond and captured microscopic imaging (Broadway et al., 2019). They also developed a quantum technology for spatial mapping of band bending in semiconductor devices using in situ quantum sensors (Broadway et al., 2018). This innovative sensor technology has transformed many fields: ultra-high-precision microscopy, geo-positioning systems, gravitational, electrical, and superconducting detectors for high-energy physics applications and magnetic sensors for biomedical imaging. Quantum gravimeters are being developed by many countries for various application as it provides many advantages over existing instruments through their ability to generate continuous, absolute gravity measurements in air and underground over long periods of time due to their robustness in instrumentation (Freier et al., 2016). The significance of quantum theory can be appreciated through the development of highly powerful quantum computers for faster calculation, communication technology, and advancement of ultrasensitive atomic clocks (based on the concept of ultracool atoms of Bose–Einstein condensate) for precision measurement (Jaeger, 2018; Reding & Eaton, 2020). We will discuss and review some of the well-known applications of quantum technology in this chapter.

2. History

Max Planck conceptualized the quantum hypothesis a century ago and treated light radiation as small discrete packages in black body radiation theory. A few years later, Albert Einstein proposes that lights pose wave-like properties consisting of discrete, quantized bundles of energy known as photons. Later, the resulting new rules created a revolution that governs physical reality. Heisenberg and Schrödinger formulated the basis of quantum physics theory by developing Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle and the Schrödinger equation, respectively. The understanding of these rules of quantum physics in light and matter led to new technologies in quantum technology.

The second quantum revolution happened in the early 1980s when scientists started working on single atoms, electrons, or photons to understand a single quantum state. In 1982, a paper was published on the laser cooling of neutral atoms where they used the force of laser light applied to atoms to slow them down. This experiment established the well-known quantum concept of Bose–Einstein condensate and paved the path for modern atomic clocks (Phillips & Metcalf, 1982). Following this work, Eric Cornell et al. demonstrated the trapping of clouds of metallic atoms, which were cooled to less than a millionth of a degree above absolute zero (Inguscio & Fallani, 2013). This work produces a better Bose–Einstein condensation system, which leads to the creation of the atom laser and superfluid gases. Recently, scientists and researchers have shown interest in developing quantum systems and found applications in quantum metrology, sensing, quantum communications, and quantum information processing (Acín et al., 2018; Gramegna & Degiovanni, 2020).

3. Some of the terminologies used in quantum field

Quantization: it is the allowed energies of the squeezed state of particles belonging to a complete system having discrete sets. Qubit is the smallest unit in quantum computing, which represents two states of a system. For example, the spin up and spin down of an electron system can be represented by 0 and 1 states in basic quantum computing. Bloch sphere represents two states of the qubit |0⟩ and |1⟩ (Aerts & Sassoli de Bianchi, 2016). The mixed state |m⟩ represents a point on the Bloch sphere (Fig. 1.1). In quantum algorithms, qubits are used for mathematical coding for storing information. Several companies like IBM, Google, Intel, and IonQ are working on quantum computers to use qubit technology for faster and complex data analysis.

Quantum superposition: like classical physics, a wave can be a combination of different waves having different frequencies and amplitude. Similarly, quantum superposition is a combination of different quantum states that creates a new quantum state. A quantum computer can exist in 2 n states of superposition where n represents qubits in a system (Fig. 1.2).

Tunneling: The ability of a particle to tunnel through an energy barrier even though it possesses lesser energy to overcome this potential barrier. This quantum mechanical effect of particles is quite fascinating as it displays the wave nature. It has been assumed that particle wave function inside the barrier decreases exponentially and the probability of finding a particle inside the barrier is related to the square of its wave function. Therefore, the probability of finding the particle outside the barrier is very small and the phenomenon of tunneling occurs.

Entanglement: Entanglement is a wonderful phenomenon of quantum measurement (Tichy et al., 2011). When two systems are in an entangled state, each of them can reveal information about the other, behaving as a measuring device. Qubits, which are considered two-state quantum systems, can be in a quantum superposition of different logical values and combined into entangled states to carry out information transmission.

Figure 1.1  Representation of bloch sphere.

Figure 1.2  Difference of classical system (bit) and quantum state (qubit) shown by solid sphere.

A pair of particles or many particles are said to be entangled when the quantum state of each particle cannot be depicted independently of the quantum state of the other particles. However, when two or more qubits are entangled together, there exists a strong connection between them. The measurements on entangled qubits are correlated even though particles are separated by a large distance. The outcome of a measurement of each particle is either 0 or 1.

Let us assume a single quantum state |m⟩ which is composed of "n" entangled qubits.

That is, the superposition of N states from q 0, q 1, …, q n −2, q n −1 where input qubits are entangled are represented by a single state |m⟩

|m⟩ = |q n −1⟩ ⊗ |q n −2⟩ ⊗ … ⊗ |q 1⟩ ⊗ |q 0⟩ = |q n −1 q n −2 … q 1 q 0⟩

where ⊗ is the Kronecker product, N = 2 n , and γ 0, γ 1, …, γ N −2, γ N −1 are complex coefficients.

Raimond et al. (2001) demonstrated entanglement experiments with Rydberg atoms and microwave photons in a cavity and tried to explain complex quantum mechanics phenomena like quantum entanglement. According to them, the result of entanglement resulted either from a resonant exchange of energy between atoms and the cavity field or from dispersive energy shifts affecting atoms and photons when they were not resonant. They also mentioned in their report that the detection of one particle projected the other, at a distance, in a correlated state, which can be observed as an elementary measurement, one particle being a meter measuring the other (Raimond et al., 2001). Atom photon entanglement is a proven concept in this regard. The creation and precise measurement of electromagnetic fields made up of just a few photons may be possible using cavity quantum electrodynamic (QED) events. Since the states of the atom and the field are intimately correlated as a result of cavity QED processes, this new field offers fresh perspectives on the quantum features of the interaction between light and matter.

3.1. Decoherence

The disappearance of certain superposition of quantum states leads to decoherence due to system interaction with the environment. The two examples of decoherence are the suppression of interference and the selection of a set of dynamically stable states (Joos, 2009).

4. Application of quantum technology

4.1. Quantum computing

The age of quantum computing is almost 20 years old when a group of scientists in various organizations and institutes (for example, Oxford University, MIT, IBM, Berkeley, etc.) started working on this concept and developed 2 qubits-based computer system in the year 1998. Since then, a lot of efforts have been made to create more powerful systems. Some of the major breakthroughs have been achieved by D-Wave systems (28 qubits in 2008), IBM (50 qubits in 2016), Google (72 qubits in 2018), and Rigetti (128 qubits in 2019) over the years to build high computing power quantum computers. The revolution in developing new technologies has seen a lot of investments by various companies to design smarter and faster quantum computers to achieve their targets. Further, NIST demonstrated the world's first 2-qubit programmable quantum processor in the year 2009, and D-Wave One is the first commercially available quantum computer developed by D-Wave company in the year 2011. The quest for building quantum computers continues, as more and more companies have shown interest in this sector.

4.2. Quantum sensors

Quantum technology has evolved over the last two decades and offers several applications in sensing, computing, timing, imaging, communications, artificial intelligence (AI), healthcare, and quantum simulation (Chugh et al., 2023; Manickam et al., 2022). Quantum sensors can measure even the most minuscule of signals and changes in everyday technology. This new generation sensor can detect more accurately than previous sensors (pressure, acceleration, magnetic, motion, gesture, etc.) due to the quantum revolution. These quantum sensors offer the potential to bring unmatched sensitivity and spatial resolution to address a wide range of sensing tasks from the characterization of dynamic biological processes to the detection of emergent phenomena in condensed matter (Yu et al., 2021). Quantum sensing exploits the sensitivity of quantum states to detect minute environmental fluctuations or perturbations to gain increased information about the natural world. For example, at the UK Quantum Technology Hub Sensors and Timing, researchers developing a new generation of magnetic systems using Optically Pumped Magnetometers (OPMs) for brain imaging. We have discussed the application of quantum sensors in various fields (Fig. 1.3).

4.3. Precision measurement

At a very low temperature, atoms show strange characteristics. Near absolute zero temperature, the atoms of elements follow Bose–Einstein condensation properties. Their wave nature becomes significant and matter waves play a vital role in deciding the properties of atoms and molecules. The theory of cold atom physics has provided precise measurement technology in atomic quantum sensors (Bongs et al., 2019; Tino et al., 2007). Through the manipulation of atoms by LASER cooling technology, the atomic energy levels of elements can provide high-quality sensing calculations. In QED calculations, the fine and hyperfine structures of hydrogen atoms appear to be quantized. The quantization of energy has provided unique science of precision measurement. Presently, atoms of elements can be maneuvered with an electromagnetic field to modify internal structures such as quantum states. It appears in the expressions of the ionization energy of hydrogen atoms (fine and hyperfine structures of atomic energy levels), and it is the parameter of the quantum electrodynamics calculations.

Figure 1.3  Application of quantum sensor technology in everyday life.

Parker et al. successfully measured the Fine structure constant α, which determines the strength of the electromagnetic interaction in the optical field of physics (Parker et al., 2018). They achieved an accuracy of 2.0 × 10 −¹⁰ using the recoil frequency of cesium-133 atoms in a matter-wave interferometer. The use of quantum electrodynamics based on Bragg diffraction and Bloch oscillations with multiphoton interactions enabled to achieve very high accuracy by reducing uncertainty in the measurement (0.12 part-per-billion level).

4.4. Quantum magnetic sensors

Precise manipulation and measurement of the state of a single electron provide a highly sensitive measurement of tiny magnetic fields. These quantum sensors have enabled high-resolution visualization of biological samples noninvasively. One of the fascinating applications of quantum magnetic sensors would be mapping human brain activity in real conditions. These quantum sensors are based on OPMs, which contain a vapor of cesium or rubidium atoms (Battersby, 2019). Each electron of the atom possesses an intrinsic spin, which can create a feeble magnetic field. Under the influence of an external electric field, the magnetic field gets aligned in one direction and produces a measurable signal from the target sample. Boto et al. (2018) demonstrated a wearable system for human brain scanning using quantum magnetic sensors. They constructed a technique for mapping brain activity by recording magnetic fields produced by electrical currents occurring naturally in the brain using very sensitive magnetometers. This system can be worn like a helmet, allowing free and natural movement during scanning. They were able to map human brain activity (electrophysiological conditions) at millisecond resolution without using bulky and complex superconducting system.

4.5. Gravity sensor

Atom interferometry is one of the earliest optical measurement systems in the field of optics to measure small movements in materials (Cronin et al., 2009; Peters et al., 2001). Optical interferometry acquires measurements by using electromagnetic waves that have been split between two different paths and superimposed. When the waves from these two paths recombine, they create an interference-fringe pattern to obtain highly accurate measurements of the gravitational field. Gravity measurements provide information on the underground mass distribution and its variations in the field of geophysics and geology (Bidel et al., 2018). The precise measurement of gravity has allowed scanning and mapping of the earth and ocean for studying locations of volcanoes, tectonic plates, glacier movements, natural minerals, oils and gases, etc. One of the earliest applications of quantum sensors is to measure the Newtonian gravitational constant (G). Rosi et al. (2014) successfully demonstrated the first precise determination of G value using laser-cooled atoms and quantum interferometry (G = 6.67191(99) × 10 −¹¹ m³/kg s²) with a relative uncertainty of 150 ppm. The precise measurement of the G value is being used for studies of gravitation, cosmology, particle physics, astrophysics, and geophysical models. Another innovative interferometer named as The gravimetric atom interferometer (GAIN) was conceptualized at Humboldt University, which is based on interfering ensembles of ⁸⁷Rb atoms in an atomic fountain configuration and stimulated Raman transitions (Freier et al., 2016). GAIN is a modified atom interferometer consisting of light pulses as beam splitters and mirrors for generating atomic matter waves (Riehle et al., 1991). The robustness of this technology is an added advantage as compared to current spring-based systems that are vulnerable to environmental disturbances. Due to the versatility of this quantum prodigy, it has found application in inertial sensing, precise measurement of gravitational constant, gravitational wave detectors, and high-precision gravity measurements as portable instruments. Similarly, the UK National Quantum Technology Hub in Sensors and Metrology at the University of Birmingham is working on gravity sensors in the field of civil engineering to explore the underneath world of the earth. They developed a powerful sensor to measure gravity and gravity gradients using atom interferometry. To measure gravity, atoms are cooled so that they act as masses in freefall. Then, the atoms were exposed to pulses of light, and their momentums are measured as the atoms are in a quantum superposition of two momentum states. When the population of two atomic states is measured, it leads to changes in density providing the value of