Myconanotechnology and Application of Nanoparticles in Biology: Fundamental Concepts, Mechanism and Industrial Applications

By Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain

Myconanotechnology and Application of Nanoparticles in Biology: Fundamental Concepts, Mechanism and Industrial Applications focuses on the emergence of myconanotechnology as a new science for the synthesis of nanoparticles using fungi and considering future applications and challenges. The book demonstrates why mycology should be regarded as a megascience: A subject requiring international collaboration to overcome barriers that need to be confronted in the interests of global security and human well-being. This reference provides a good source of knowledge and guidelines for advanced graduate students and will be of significant interest to scientists working on the basic issues surrounding applications of myconanotechnology.

• Highlights established specific applications of myconanotechnology in various industrial sectors and discusses future research directions
• Provides academic and industry a high-tech start-up that will revolutionize modern industrial practices
• Offers a comprehensive coverage on myconanotechnology including real-time case studies
• Focuses on the emergence of myconanotechnology as a new science for the synthesis of nanoparticles by using fungi
• Carries out an in-depth and step-by-step description of knowledge on myco-nanotechnology, current research trends, opportunities and their involvement in modern society

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Jul 22, 2023
• ISBN: 9780443152634

Book preview

Preface

Fungal nanotechnology is promising as an innovative branch of science for the synthesis of nano-particles using fungal biomass. The primary reason attributed that fungi possess diversity of enzymes as reducing agents, so they could be a potential organism for synthesizing of metallic nano-particles. Secondary, fungi eventually grow faster than those of other micro-organisms under the same condition and their biological perspective benefits in miscellaneous fields. Various metabolites like polysaccharides, proteins, enzymes and other macro-molecules have been used as fungal biomass as genuine tool to synthesize nano-particles. As a result myconanotechnology is a combination of two words, i.e. myco means fungi and nanotechnology means the creation and exploitation of materials in the size range of 1–100 nm and offers a wide array of benefits in diverse areas of human welfare with several challenges. These challenges need to be undertaken before the full potential of myconanotechnology can be evaluated, which include determining the detailed chemical processes involved in the formation of the particles, and optimizing sufficient quantities of a consistent product that can be easily extracted or separated. Overall, the aim of this book is to deliver the recent advancements in myconanotechnology.

To capture comprehensive impression of myconanotechnology and to provide reader a coherent and communicative representation, the book is divided in to several chapters. Chapter 1 is about myconanotechnology: bioperspective applications and future challenges. Chapter 2 explores mycogenic nano-particles and their biological applications with their present status and prospective challenges. Chapter 3 describes in detail myconanotechnology in agricultural and veterinary sector. Chapter 4 discusses synthesis and application of myconanoparticle and their role in pest control and farming. Chapter 5 debates fungal-mediated synthesis of gold and titanium nano-particles and their application in agriculture. Chapter 6 talks about deciphering of mycogenic nano-particles by spectroscopic methods. Then Chapter 7 finds myconanotechnology as a sustainable means for multiple applications in environment protection. Whereas Chapters 8–10 examine role of myconanotechnology towards sustainable agriculture, environmental Health and Sustainable Development.

Overall, this book is intended to be a reference guidebook for experts, researchers and scientists who are searching for new and modern development in myconanotechnology. The editors and authors are well-known researchers, scientists and specialists from various universities and industry. On behalf of ELSEVIER, we are very delighted with all authors for their outstanding and enthusiastic hard work in making of this book. Special acknowledgements to Linda Versteeg-Buschman (Acquisition Editor), Barbara Makinster (Editorial Project Manager) and Omer Mukthar Moosa (Production Manager) at ELSEVIER, for their devoted support and help during this project. In the end, we offer our sincere thanks to ELSEVIER for publishing the book.

Mohammed Kuddus, Ph.D.

Iffat Zareen Ahmad, Ph.D.

Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain, Ph.D.

(Editors)

Chapter 1: Myconanotechnology: bioperspective applications and future challenges

Gaurav Arora ¹ , Deepika Bhatia ² , Sandeep Kaur ³ , and Pooja Bhadrecha ⁴       ¹ Department of Agriculture, Baba Farid College, Bathinda, Punjab, India      ² Department of Biotechnology & Medical Sciences, Baba Farid College, Bathinda, Punjab, India      ³ Department of Zoology, Baba Farid College, Bathinda, Punjab, India      ⁴ University Institute of Biotechnology, Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab, India

Abstract

Fungal nanotechnology is promising as an innovative branch of science for the synthesis of nanoparticles using fungal biomass. The primary reason attributed that fungi possess diversity of enzymes as reducing agents, so they could be a potential organism for synthesizing of metallic nanoparticles. Secondary, fungi eventually grow faster than those of other micro-organisms under the same condition and their biological perspective benefits in miscellaneous fields. Various metabolites viz., polysaccharides, proteins, enzymes and other macromolecules have highlighted fungal biomass as a genuine tool to synthesize nanoparticles. Currently, the molecular significance of myconano factories is widely assessed through various methodologies for procuring naturally synthesized metallic nanoparticles. Synthesis of metal-based nanoparticles through the process of reduction NADPH-dependent nitrate reductase and FAD-dependent glutathione reductases present in fungal cell walls. Myconanotechnology offers a wide array of benefits in diverse areas of human welfare. The current chapter discusses mechanism of synthesis and characterization of nanoparticles followed by potential advantages in several fields like agriculture, food-preservation, fabric and dyeing and pharmaceutics and challenges in this area.

Keywords

Enzymes; Fungal biomass; Nanobiotechnology; Nanoparticles; Nanoscience

1. Introduction

Fungi possess exclusive possibilities of synthesizing various nanoparticles (NPs) with huge potentials of industrial applications. Hence, the use of fungi for procuring NPs has become a demanding field, because of the eco-friendly state of their metabolite-mediated NPs, amenability, safety and applications in different domains. Myconanotechnology is an advanced term described as the contriving of NPs from fungi along with their ensuing applications, expressly in the field of medicine. Myconanotechnology refers to the combining term of mycology and nanotechnology, along with unique applied interdisciplinary science that possibly has large prospective, because of the substantial diversity of fungi (Hanafy, 2018). Mycology is related with the study of fungi, whereas nanotechnology refers to the field of designing, synthesizing and eventually applying essential particles of nanosize (Sousa et al., 2020). In recent times, fungal bionanofactories have been reported to synthesize essential NPs with fair dimensions and monodispersity (Guilger-Casagrande and Lima, 2019) and proved as significant bionanofactory to synthesize NPs metallic. For diagnosis of various diseases, fungi are now important and required for treating via exclusive drug delivery to the locations which used to be inaccessible. Myconanotechnology is a trend which is increasing at a tremendous speed because of green synthesis; however, conventional methods are reported to have negative consequences, viz., emission of some residues which are toxic in nature and hence, directly or indirectly affects animals and humans and causing immensurable environment loss (Canu et al., 2018). In addition, these methods demand sophisticated instrumentation, high-end and high energy requirement for productive manufacturing at a commercial scale. Particularly for biosynthesis of NPs, fungi are well-studied and well-documented for its potential of great productivity and higher metallic tolerance, especially in terms of high capability metal ions to bind to the cell wall (Singh et al., 2016). Cytoplasmic and cell wall enzymes of fungi easily transform metal ions into NPs (Chatterjee et al., 2020). In addition, gold NPs of gold-producing fungi include Aspergillus, Neurospora, Fusarium, Pleurotus and Verticillium species (Wang et al., 2021). Successful synthesis of NPs demands specific fungal strains known for high growth rate and compatibility, e.g., Rhizopus oryzae, Fusarium oxysporum and Verticillium sp. A. fumigates is well documented to produce zinc NPs (Baskar et al., 2013), A. alternate and A. oryzae are known for their capability of producing iron NPs (Mohamed et al., 2015; Tarafdar and Raliya, 2013). Various fungal species can produce silica NPs also (Bansal et al., 2005). S. hirsutum and ureolytic fungi produce copper NPs (Cuevas et al., 2015; Li and Gadd, 2017), A. alternata (Niranjan Dhanasekar et al., 2015), A. sidowii (Vala, 2015), and few thermophilic fungi are reported to produce gold NPs (Molnár et al., 2018), whereas A. alternata (Kareem et al., 2019), Alternaria solani and Fusarium oxyporum (Ghazwani, 2015) produce silver NPs. The observations of UV-blocking and antimicrobial activities has been seen by biosynthetic zinc oxide (ZnO) NPs (Fouda et al., 2018), While decolonization of textile effluents and expelling of various heavy metals seen in fungal-synthesized Maghemite. Eco-friendly synthesis of cupric oxide and zinc oxide from Penicillum is further used for degrading of methylene blue dye (Fouda et al., 2021). An insecticidal activity especially on wheat damaging pests has been reported by fungal-synthesized cupric oxide NPs (Badawy et al., 2021).

2. Characteristics of fungal cells

Mainly fungi are eukaryotic organisms and decomposers in nature. About 70,000 species of fungi have been identified but in present times millions of species survive as well as thrive at different habitats in nature. One of the important properties of fungi is considered as safe as it produces NPs are of GRAS status (Adebayo et al., 2021). Furthermore, fungi can accumulate metal particles by physical, chemical and biological ways like metabolism-dependent accumulation, particular polypeptide binding and polymer-metabolites binding so, fungi is exclusively sought after for synthesis of metallic NPs. The scale-up ability of fungi is listed as another privilege for the formation of NP (exemplified by using thin solid substrate fermentation technique). High potential for wall binding and uptake of intercellular metal made it favoured for nanobiotechnological functions (Bourzama et al., 2021). Fungi, by using the reducing enzymes (can be intracellular or extracellular), can produce various metal NPs or meso/nanostructures (Mughal et al., 2021). Advantages of extracellularly synthesized NPs, over those synthesized intracellularly are: (1) since they are generally accumulate outside the cells, fungal NPs do not demand cell lysis, (2) harsh bioreactor conditions like the pressure created by flow-rate and agitation are easily bearable to fungi, (3) since fungi is easy to handle and process in down-streaming, it proves advantageous in terms of processing required to recover and purify NPs and (4) the whole process turns out to be quite cost-efficient, sustainable and needs shorter time duration (Prasad et al., 2016, 2017). Fungal endophytes easily colonize plants, without any severe or immediate side-effects (Shukla and Sandhu, 2017). Endophytic fungi are famously designated as imperative resources of numerous structurally innovative active primary as well as various secondary metabolites which possess several therapeutic potentials like anti-cancer and anti-microbial potential. Synthesis of metallic NPs from endophytes has been attracting researchers now-a-days because of its ease; quick rate of synthesis of NPs; polymorphic in nature and environmental friendly nature. The chief features of the fungi kingdom include degradation of reactant in extracellular periphery, followed by secreting essential enzymes required for degrading complex compounds into simpler forms and uses of various sources (Blackwell, 2011). Hence, it is the dire need to explore the potential of fungal species in nanobiotechnology. Also, fungi produce biomolecules (protein) in ample amounts; they can be imperative for pilot-scale production of NPs. Mostly fungal origin proteins have been very famous for hydrolysing the metal ions. Therefore, fungi are easily isolated and cultured in-vitro. Therefore, fungal enzymes isolation, extraction and purification of enzymes from fungi areless laborious as compared to chemical approaches. Fungi have a significant role in the prevention of environmental pollution. Utilization of microbes such as fungi for synthesizing NPs is an alluring green nanotechnology option and emerged as a novel approach (Elegbede et al., 2019). Fig. 1.1 illustrates credibility of fungi for synthesis of NPs.

Figure 1.1  Significance of fungi for synthesis of nanoparticles.

3. Properties and mechanism of nanoparticles formation

Nanoparticles are also known as nanocrystals, or nanopowders or nanomaterials, can be natural or manufactured. NPs are purposely formed or modified to get definite features, whereas dimensions are typically from 1 to 100 nm (Pulit-Prociak and Banach, 2016). Term ‘nanobiotechnology’ describes NP production to make use of biological systems capable of being beneficial in enhancing the biocompatibility. NPs are available as rod-shaped, spherical and/or triangular structures and are synthesized from several metal ions (Mahendra et al., 2009). Furthermore, specialties of NPs are larger ratio in terms of surface area and volume. As per the definitions, NPs exist naturally and/or may be biosynthesized according to the requirement. The NPs are divided into the following categories (Temizel-Sekeryan and Hicks, 2020).

1. Quantum dots (Cd selenide, quantum dots free of Cd).

2. Non-metallic inorganic NPs of zinc, aluminium, iron, titanium, calcium, etc.

3. Metals/metal alloys of gold, iron, platinum, copper, nickel, cobalt, aluminium, lead, manganese, silver, molybdenum, etc.

4. Nanopolymers/dendrimers (nanostructured polymer films, polymer nanotubes, nanowires and nanorods, polymeric NPs nanocellulose).

5. Nanomaterials based on carbon (C-based nanofibres, C-based nanotubes, fullerenes).

The properties and behaviour of NPs varies according to size materials when comes to microscale, i.e., factors which change the behaviour of NPs are surface and quantum effects (Pulit-Prociak and Banach, 2016). Moreover, all above-mentioned factors directly/indirectly influence the chemical reactivity and determine their other important mechanical and optical properties and show enhancement magnetic, electrical and optical characteristics. Change in size or other favourable variations can be done for desired profitability in abroad spectrum of scientific fields (Temizel-Sekeryan and Hicks, 2020). Production of NPs in huge amount with a definite size and form in a comparatively lesser time is possible through chemical method but quite costly along with harmful effects on the environment and possess health threats to living organisms. As a result, adoption of green approach becomes necessary for designing the NPs (Khan et al., 2017), since being cost effective, eco-friendly or at a large production rate. For the production of NPs, fungal species use two methods, intracellular and extracellular along with high secretion of proteins or enzymes (Chaudhari et al., 2016).

4. Synthesis of myconanoparticles

4.1. Extra-cellular biosynthesis of myconanoparticles

MNP's production from fungi is more advantageous than other microbes because fungal mycelia are capable of withstanding agitation, pressure of flow rate, as well as other such parameters of the bioreactor (Abdel-Kareem and Zohri, 2018). Fungi species such as Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Penicillium brevicompactum, Aspergillus oryzae, Rhizopus oryzae, Colletotrichum sp. and Aspergillus niger were involved in the biosynthesis of NPs specially for Au NPs (Kitching et al., 2015). Various molecules have been reported (such as proteins, quinines, peptides, polysaccharides, oxidoreductases, etc.) which are displayed by the fungal cell membranes and performing a function of reducing metal ions and resulted into the precipitation of M NPs (Dhanjal et al., 2022). So these molecules are major in the synthesis of M NPs by extracellular method. Extracellular reductases are those chief enzymes which are also responsible for M NPs production (Durán et al., 2011). Au NPs and Ag NPs, are produced by nitrate reductases which are sulphite and NADPH dependent, are produced by F. oxysporum cells (Hietzschold et al., 2019). Additionally, FAD-dependent glutathione reductase, quinines (naphthoquinones and anthraquinones), nitrate reductases, quinine derivatives and hydrogenases also seen in fungal synthesis of M NPs during the reduction process. Au NPs were produced with the help of Fusarium oxysporum, and an anti-proliferative activity has been reported in the study against Burkitt's lymphoma and breast cancer in-vitro (Ahmad Siddiqui et al., 2016) to reduce the metal ions an electron shuttle is also required while using fungi for metal production. It is seen that when some metalloproteins exposed to huge amount of heavy metal ions, fungi get over-expressed which further are used in metal ion reduction process. In extracellular synthesis, cell membranes which consist surface proteins have a significant involvement during MNP biosynthesis (Silva et al., 2016). In a study of fungi, C. versicolour and R. oryzae were found to have mycelia with embedded surface proteins that help to reduce silver and gold ions for synthesizing silver and gold NPs, in stabilized form (Khandel and Shahi, 2018). Furthermore, for gold NPs production, other fungi such as Actinomycete and Thermomonospora sp. are used in extracellular process. When the reduction process followed extremophilic, Actinomycete and Thermomonospora sp. resulted in high yielding gold with efficient polydispersity (Ahmad et al., 2003a,b). Specific alkaline conditions and specific temperatures gold ions of 8 nm size are produced by an alkalothermophilic Actinomycete thermomonospora sp. synthesized (Ahmad Siddiqui et al., 2016). Recent research findings have assured that the concentrations of NPs were higher at the cell walls, as compared to the cell membrane. Therefore, gold ions usually reduced since enzymes are found in cell wall and cell membrane. Fungal species Macrophomina phaseolina is used for extracellular production of green Ag/AgCl-NPs and successively these NPs not harm seed germination process (Spagnoletti et al.,