Postharvest Management of Fresh Produce: Recent Advances

By Vijai Kumar Gupta

Postharvest Management of Fresh Produce: Recent Advances critically addresses the latest issues, challenges, and technological advancements in postharvest management of fresh commodities, especially fruits, nuts, and vegetables. The book covers the intriguing correlation of preharvest treatments, maturity indices and postharvest operations that significantly affect the postharvest quality of fresh produce. Further topics include packaging, logistics and storage technologies, the role of microbial communities, and ‘omics’ strategies in postharvest disease management. Special attention is given to the latest trends of nanotechnology, internet of things (IoTs), and blockchain technologies in food supply chain management of perishable products.

The book is a great resource for young and experienced professionals in academia, industry, and UG/PG students to explore a diversified range of topics in postharvest strategies relevant to food processing, food technologies, agro-processing and quality control.

• Thoroughly explores major preharvest losses due to non-availabilities of the latest technologies
• Describes the latest trends in the supply chain to minimize preharvest losses
• Provides an overview on smart technologies such as nanotechnology, IoTs and blockchain technology

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Jul 29, 2023
• ISBN: 9780323984881

Book preview

Chapter 1

Pre-harvest treatments affecting the post-harvest quality of fresh produce

Akhilesh Kumar¹ and Bhoopendra Kumar Singh²,    ¹Eden Horticulture Services, Karnal, Haryana, India,    ²Vista Processed Foods Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

Abstract

The supply chain of any fresh produce consists of pre-harvest (agri inputs used and cultivation practices) and post-harvest (harvesting methodology, primary packing at farm level, quick movement of produce from farm to collection/aggregation center, pre-cooling, cold chain logistics, storage condition at the processing facility and finally temperature of processing area and water temperature used during processing, etc.) segments, where pre-harvests associated with on-farm and post-harvest associated with off-farm activities. Though, on paper, both are fragmented physically and biologically and are connected to each other. Pre- and post-harvest management typically affects the biological and physiological characteristics which are directly associated with the quality behavior of fresh produce. Pre-harvest factors viz, environmental factors such as temperature, relative humidity, water potential, light, cultural practices, and pest management techniques determined the inherent quality of the fresh produce.

Good agricultural practices should be followed as per agroclimatic zone, variety selection, crop season, manures/fertilizers, irrigation level, care during the complete growing season, and last but not least harvesting stage are also important parameters since once the produce is harvested, it is not possible to improve its quality. Pre-harvest management/factors have a great effect on the quality of fresh produce which is directly connected with the economics of buyer and seller both. It’s important to decipher all physiological aspects of the crops, i.e., the role of pre-harvest factors in terms of post-harvest quality will be useful for the growers so that they can control the quality of fresh produces and it will help them to fetch the premium price in the domestic as well as export market. In the present article, we review how pre-harvest factors can potentially impact the post-harvest quality of fresh produce.

Keywords

Pre- and post-harvest; agroclimatic zones; irrigation level; physiological aspects

1.1 Introduction

Horticulture produces are perishable in nature thus significant (35%–50%) post-harvest loss is a matter of great concern these days. These losses are mainly due to a lack of cold chain management, storage, dehydration, decay, and physiological disorders during post-harvest handling. Fresh products also undergo rapid changes in nutritional and sensory quality after harvest, some of which contribute to the loss of market value. Losses can be mitigated through better management of pre- and post-harvest factors. Different kinds of pre-and post-harvest treatments affecting the quality of fresh produce are shown in Fig. 1.1. Differences in post-harvest loss of fresh produce between developed (5%–35%) and developing countries (30%–50%), as reported by Kader (2002) and Salami et al. (2010), is due to the higher capacity and better infrastructure in developed economies for managing these factors (Ahmad & Siddiqui, 2015).

Figure 1.1 Pre- and post-harvest treatments affecting the quality of fresh produce.

Fresh produce quality represents freshness, market quality, edible quality, transport quality, table quality, nutritional quality, internal quality, appearance, etc. Quality means a combination of characteristics, attributes, and properties that gives value to humans and enjoyment. Consumers consider good quality in relation to color, flavor, and nutrition. The quality of the product is the final manifestation of inter-relation between the commodity and its environment during the pre- and post-harvest stages. Several pre- and post-harvest factors affect the quality of horticultural crops. Some of these pre-harvest factors have been discussed here which are related to plants, and others are related to the environment or cultural practices.

1.2 Pre-harvest factors affecting the quality of fresh produces

1.2.1 Varietal characters

The genetic characteristics and physiological status of the commodity determine the typical post-harvest behavior and quality of the produce and these two are the major bases for the interaction (pre-harvest factors). Varieties with shorter shelf lives are generally prone to higher post-harvest losses. Varieties with a thick peel, high firmness, low respiration rate, and low ethylene production rates would usually have longer storage life. The cultivars that have ability to withstand the rigors of marketing and distribution will have lesser losses after harvest. Varieties with resistance to low-temperature disorders and/or decay-causing pathogens can be stored well for longer duration with minimum storage losses. Hence, while growing horticultural crops, one must choose such varieties that inherently have got good quality and storage potential in addition to the high yield and pest resistance potential.

In tomatoes, several hybrid varieties have been developed with think peel and low water content so that their transpiration rate can be reduced, physical damage during transportation can be minimized, and these traits reduce post-harvest loss up to large extent (Marković et al., 2008). Similarly, in potato, processing varieties have less water than table varieties and more dry matter can be recovered after dehydration from these varieties; thus (Das et al., 2021; Pandey et al., 2008), the potato processing industry prefer processing varieties having longer storage life. In the case of onions also, those people who want to store and then sell during monsoon period in India prefer onion with less water which grows especially in Nashik area, which is known for its higher shelf life (Dabhi et al., 2008). Onions grown in the Alwar area of north India are good but has more water content which reduces their storability thus not preferred by traders. These three crops, Tomato, Onion, and Potato (TOP), are a major concern for the Indian government. These three crops contribute 70% of the total post-harvest loss of total horticulture produces in India. Some of the main varieties which are being used by Indian farmers for more shelf life are shown in Table. 1.1.

Table 1.1

1.2.2 Light

Light and nutrients are the most important elements for plant growth and development. Light regulates several physiological processes such as chlorophyll synthesis, phototropism, respiration, and stomatal opening. Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) is the range of light wavelengths that enables photosynthesis in plants. The actual range is from 400 to 700 nm. 400-nm range light is blue colored and the 700-nm range light is red colored; these two ranges are important to plants, and both of these ranges are included in all grow lights (Flores et al., 2002). There are several kinds of plants having different requirements, e.g., high-light, or full-sun plants need at least 60,000 lux, medium-light or partial sun plants need at least 35,000 lux whereas low-light or partial shade plants need at least 15,000 lux. Using a LUX meter for natural sunlight gives a good indication of light, but scientifically we should measure PAR because it measures the red and blue spectrum of light which is vital for photosynthesis.

The duration, intensity, and quality of light also affect the quality of fruits and vegetables at harvest. Absorption of red light (625–700 nm) through pigments, phytochrome, is essential for carbohydrate synthesis which determines the shelf life of the produce. The vase life of the carnation and chrysanthemums is longer under high light intensity than low. In recent days vertical farming and indoor farming is becoming common practice but growers always struggle with the light quality and quality of their fresh produces (Fig. 1.2). Moreover, when we estimate the cost of production then the light expenditure is very high in indoor farming so it’s always good to grow under natural light, especially in tropical and sub-tropical countries. Light intensity also affects plant development, metabolism, and the activity of the antioxidant system (Hasan et al., 2017). The leaf area, the amount of accumulated dry mass, and the total amount of phenols are strongly dependent on the light intensity (Liu et al., 2016).

Figure 1.2 PAR-dependent indoor vertical farming.

Citrus and mango fruits produced in full sun generally had a thinner skin, a lower weight, low juice content, and lower acidity but a higher total soluble solids (TSS). And citrus fruits grown in the shade may be less susceptible to chilling injury and subsequently stored in cold storage. In tomatoes, leaf shading of fruits produced a deeper red color during the ripening than in the case of those exposed to light. The side of the fruit that has been exposed to the sun will generally be firmer than the non-exposed side. In general, the lower the light intensity, the lower the ascorbic acid content of plant tissues. Broccoli is another crop where high light intensity induces discoloration of head which directly affects its market price. Thus, shade-loving crops are supposed to be grown in greenhouses for better traits. Similarly, in potatoes, if tuber gets exposed to sunlight, then it starts glycoalkaloid biosynthesis of solanine and chaconine due to which it becomes green in color and bitter in taste.

Several studies describe the effect of light intensity and fertilization on lettuce. Fu et. al. (2017) showed that red–blue LED lighting intensities of 60, 140, and 220 µmol/(m² s) and nitrogen fertilization rates of 7, 15, and 23 mmol/L differently affected lettuce growth. They found that the combination of higher light intensity and lower nitrogen content improved photosynthesis and yields. In another study (Kang et al., 2013), lettuce was grown in a closed-type plant factory system using LED lighting with four different intensities 200, 230, 260, and 290 µmol/(m² s), and three different photoperiods 18/6 (1 cycle),9/3 (2 cycles) or 6/2 (3 cycles) light/dark. The most suitable conditions for lettuce growth were 290 µmol/(m² s) at a 6/2 photoperiod or 230 µmol/(m² s) at an 18/6 photoperiod. In both cases, the anthocyanin content and fresh and dry weights were the highest. In leafy vegetables, leaves are larger and thinner under conditions of low light intensity.

1.2.3 Temperature

All types of physiological and biochemical processes related to plant growth and yield are influenced by the temperature. The higher temperature during field conditions decreases life and quality of the produce. At high temperature, stored carbohydrates of fruits, vegetables, and flowers are quickly depleted during respiration, and plant respires at a faster rate (Francis & Barlow, 1988). The produce which is having a higher amount of stored carbohydrates shows longer storage life. For example, high temperature during the fruiting season of tomatoes leads to the quick ripening of fruits on and off the plant. Orange grown in the tropics tend to have higher sugars and TSS than those grown in the subtropics. However, tropical-grown oranges tend to be green in color and peel less easily and it is due to the lower diurnal temperature that occurs in the tropics (Zandalinas et al., 2018). Similarly, higher temperature plays a vital role in pigmentation; also, at high-temperature fruits and flowers’ colors will be faded.

Fruit and seed crop production heavily rely on successful stigma pollination, pollen tube growth, and fertilization of female gametes. These processes depend on production of viable pollen grains, a process sensitive to high-temperature stress. Therefore, rising global temperatures threaten worldwide crop production. Close observation of plant development shows that high-temperature stress causes morpho-anatomical changes in male reproductive tissues that contribute to reproductive failure (James & Thomas, 2019). These changes include early tapetum degradation, another indehiscence, and deformity of pollen grains, all of which are contributing factors to pollen fertility. Temperature plays a vital role in greenhouse cultivation; this technology is very successful in temperate countries whereas in tropical and sub-tropical countries due to rise in temperature during summer further adds to the temperature inside the greenhouse which induces heat stress and plants crop cycle gets shortened. This is why crop productivity inside greenhouse is low in tropical and sub-tropical countries in comparison to temperate countries. Apart from high-temperature direct effects, it also affects the quality of fresh produces indirectly through increased rate of respiration, transpiration rate, and moisture loss.

1.2.4 Humidity

High humidity during the growing season results in thin rind and increased size in some horticultural produce and this produce is more prone to high incidence of disease during post-harvest period. Humid atmosphere may cause the development of fungal and bacterial diseases, which damages produce during storage transport (Hiroyuki et al., 2013). Inside greenhouse humidity maintenance is very important because humid air doesn’t get sufficient place to exit thus inside greenhouse humidity increases and due to this, chances of fungal infestation also increase. Damaged produce removes water very quickly and emits a larger concentration of ethylene than healthy ones. Low humidity may cause the browning of leaf edges on plants with thin leaves or leaflets (Granke & Hausbeck, 2010). High humidity can maintain the water-borne pollutants in a condition so that they can be more easily absorbed through the cuticles or stomata (Xiaoming et al., 2021). High humidity also makes pollen sticky thus proper pollination doesn’t happen due to which we do not get the proper shape of fruits. This is very often in the case of capsicum during high humidity. In the case of floriculture crops, high humidity is beneficial, and it helps in pigmentation and vase life enhancement.

Due to high humidity, transpiration rates decrease which minimizes calcium uptake into the plant canopy from the soil. Due to the lack of calcium cell wall biosynthesis is directly affected and we do not get quality fresh produces. Due to a lack of calcium leaves, steam and even fruit morphology are directly get affected. To control plant humidity, we need to take care of plant density, spacing between them, temperature, facilitate ventilation as much as possible and crop leaf area index is also an important factor in humidity creation.

1.2.5 Growing media

These days due to climate change and to reduce post-harvest loss, controlled environment horticulture (CEH) is booming where inside a controlled atmosphere growers are producing off-season crops. Hydroponic technology where leafy vegetables are grown in running water has more productivity than open-field cultivation. Soil-less cultivation where cocopeat or rock wool kind of substrates are used to grow crops in sterilized (disease-free) media. Similarly, aeroponic technology is being used to produce breeder seeds of potatoes (processing varieties) to enhance potato productivity. On one hand, these technologies are having some advantages but on the other hand, cost of cultivation is very high in these methodologies; thus, one has to evaluate its economics as per season, location, and marketing. Nowadays, greenhouse growers prefer to use cocopeat media for their crop cultivation since the soil inside the greenhouse doesn’t get UV light from diffused sunlight thus chances of soil-borne disease infestation are always high. Apart from that, most of the time we can not change soil chemistry like Ec, pH, and porosity as per crop requirement but we may customize cocopeat combination as per our requirement. Watermelon cultivation inside polyhouse by using cocopeat media in Thailand has been shown in Fig. 1.3. Similarly, nowadays people are trying to grow blueberries in India in similar ways where they keep cocopeat pH acidic which is required by Blueberry cultivation. Fresh produces grown in these substrates has been found highly perishable due to crop physiology thus having a short life cycle. Moreover, significant changes in metabolic profiling are another concern of these technologies.

Figure 1.3 Melon cultivation inside soil-less (cocopeat) media.

1.2.6 Fertigation

Balanced application of all nutrient elements is necessary for the maintaining growth and development of the plants. The application of fertilizers to crops influences their post-harvest respiration rate. Excess or deficiency of certain elements can affect crop quality and its post-harvest life. Numerous physiological disorders are also associated with mineral deficiencies which ultimately lead to post-harvest losses.

1.2.6.1 Nitrogen

Nitrogen is an important mineral element that is used by almost all crops. Nitrogen, as a key component of plant proteins, plays an important role in plant growth and development. Since nitrogen involves in protein synthesis thus soil nitrogen deficiencies may lead to lower protein concentrations in vegetables, thereby affecting the nutritional composition of the crop. Adequate soil nitrogen supplies allow for the optimal development of vegetable color, flavor, texture, and nutritional quality. The yellow leaf’s appearance is the first indication of nitrogen deficiency, first, the oldest leaves turn greenish yellow. This color spreads out from the inside of the leaves which later on decreases plant height, fruit branches become shorter, and seed pods fall more.

Excess soil nitrogen can be problematic as well. Research has shown that too much soil nitrogen can reduce the vitamin C content of Green leafy vegetables such as swiss chard (Comis, 1989). Excess nitrogen may lower fruit sugar content and acidity. In certain situations, leafy green plants may accumulate excess soil nitrogen, leading to high concentrations of nitrates in the harvested greens. Due to excess nitrogen, there will be fewer and smaller fruits. If the nitrogen is too high then fruits take longer to ripen. Fruit will be soft and have short storage life. Too much nitrogen also hurts root growth and the water efficiency of plants. In onions and potatoes, excess nitrogen affects their storage life thus it is always recommended to apply fertilizers as per soil requirements. High levels of N tend to decrease the flavor, TSS, firmness, and color of the fruit and in stone fruits, it increases physiological disorders and decreases fruit color. Generally, crops that have high levels of nitrogen typically have poorer keeping qualities than those with lower levels. High nitrogen increases fruit respiration, and faster tissue deterioration thereby reducing their storage life.

1.2.6.2 Phosphorus and potassium

Phosphorus and potassium also play very important roles in plant growth and development. Phosphorus is a key component of DNA and plant cell membranes. This element also plays a key role in plant metabolic processes. Potassium is important in plant water balance and enzyme activation. High levels of soil phosphorus have been shown to increase sugar concentrations in fruits and vegetables while decreasing acidity. High levels of soil potassium often have a positive effect on the quality of vegetables. Increased soil potassium concentrations have been shown to increase the vitamin C and titratable acidity concentrations of vegetables and improve vegetable color. Potassium also decreases blotchy ripening of tomatoes. Phosphorous nutrition can alter the post-harvest physiology of some produce by affecting membrane lipid chemistry, membrane integrity, and respiratory metabolism. The respiration rate of low-phosphorous fruits will be higher than that of high-phosphorous fruits during storage. Whereas potassic fertilizers improve keeping quality, their deficiency can bring about abnormal ripening of fruits and vegetables. Potassium helps in reducing some physiological storage disorders, e.g., superficial rind pitting in oranges.

1.2.6.3 Calcium

The storage potential of the fruits is largely dependent on the Ca level and it is associated with produce texture. The higher level of N, P, and Mg and low levels of K and Bo lead to the Ca deficiency in fruits and reduce their storage life. Reduction in calcium uptake causes lateral stem breakage of poinsettia. Calcium treatment delays ripening, and senescence reduces susceptibility to chilling injury, increases firmness and reduces decay after storage in avocados, and improves the quality. Physiological disorders of storage organs related to low Ca content of the tissue are:

• Bitter pit in apples

• Cork spot in pears

• Blossom end rot in tomato

• Tip burn in lettuce and hollow heart in potato, etc.

• Red blotch of lemons

In a hydroponic system also, calcium deficiency is clearly visible if humidity is very high or nitrogen/phosphorus dose is high, as shown in Fig. 1.4. Zn is known to act as vehicle for carrying ions across tissue and increasing the Ca content of the fruit. An adequate supply of Bo improves the mobility of Ca in the leaves and the fruits and subsequently increases fruit firmness, TSS, organic acids and reduces the incidence of drought spot, bitter pit, and cracking disorders which also impart disease resistance. The incorporation of 4% Ca into proto pectin of middle lamella forms a bond with the cellulose of the cell wall and thus delayed softening in fruits. Infused Ca inhibits internal browning, retarded respiration, and reduced the metabolism of endogenous substrates (Al-Saif et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2022). Post-climacteric respiration of apple decreased as peel Ca level increased from 400 to 1300 ppm. Ca may reduce the endogenous substrate catabolism by limiting the diffusion of substrate from vacuole to the respiratory enzymes in the cytoplasm (limited membrane permeability).

Figure 1.4 Calcium deficiencies due to translocation in a hydroponics system.

Application of CaCl2 delayed the accumulation of free sugars, decreased inorganic contents, mold development, softening, and development of red color in strawberries. In pears reduced cork spot, increased flesh firmness, total acidity, and juiciness, and in apples even after 90 days of storage at ambient conditions showed acceptable quality. Similarliy in tomato blossom end rot is due to calcium deficiency (Fig. 1.5).

Figure 1.5 Tomato blossom end rot due to calcium deficiencies.

1.2.7 Canopy management

Canopy management refers to its physical composition comprising of the stem, branches, shoot, and leaves, as well as the number and size of the leaves, determine the shoot density. Earlier canopy management was restricted in fruit science but nowadays it is common in vegetable science since vertical farming started. Apart from this, several other packages of practice and climatic parameters affects quality of fresh produces.

A. Fruit thinning: Increases fruit size but reduces total yield. It helps in obtaining better quality produce, e.g., capsicum and tomato.

B. Fruit position in the tree: Fruits that are exposed to high light environment possess higher TSS, acidity, fruit size, aroma, and shelf life compared to which lies inside the canopy. Hence, better training system should be practiced for circulating optimum light and air, e.g., grapes, mangoes, peaches, and kiwifruits.

C. Girdling: Increases the fruit size and advances synchronized fruit maturity in peach and nectarines and increases fruitfulness in many other fruit species too.

D. Rainfall: Rainfall affects the water supply to the plant and influences the composition of the harvested plant part. This affects its susceptibility to mechanical damage and decay during subsequent harvesting and handling operations. On the other hand, excess water supply to plants results in cracking of fruits such as cherries, plums, and tomatoes. If root and bulb crops are harvested during heavy rainfall, the storage losses will be higher. Cracking in pomegranates is one of the major reason due to excess rainfall.

E. Seasons/day and day length: Seasonal fluctuation and time of the day at harvest will greatly affect the post-harvest quality of the produce. Synthesis of higher amounts of carbohydrates during the daytime and its utilization through translocation and respiration at night is responsible for the variation in the longevity of the cut flowers. Roses and tuberose have been found to show longer keeping quality in the winter season under ambient conditions than in the summer seasons. Generally, produce harvested early in the morning or in the evening hours exhibits longer post-harvest life than produce harvested during hot times of the day. If long days onion (temperate) is grown during the short day (tropics) condition, it leads to very poor storage quality.

1.2.8 Carbon dioxide

Quality planting material starts more flowering and rapid crop growth and development at higher levels of CO2 (Ainsworth & Long, 2015; Rai et al., 2016). Production of chrysanthemum under greenhouse at 1000–2000 ppm of CO2 showed an increase in stem length, fresh weight, leaf numbers, and longevity of cut flowers (Mortensen. 1983; Saha et al., 2013; Yun et al., 2020).

1.2.9 Plant protection by agrochemicals

All crops in their crop cycle face disease infestation as per their growth stage, season, and other climatic factors. Real-time crop monitoring is very important to control such infestations (Umamaheshwari et al., 2017). Pre-harvest application of chemicals such as BA, IAA, GA3, growth retardants like B-9, CCC, A-Rest, and Phosphon-D have been reported to improve the quality and longevity of flower crops. Application of GA3 at 50–100 ppm improves the post-harvest quality of roses by anthocyanin development, and it stimulates the accumulation of N, K, Mg, and S. Pre-harvest spray with Alar (1500 ppm) and Cycocel (500 ppm) increases vase life of fresh produces. The beneficial effect of leaf manure, K, and GA3 is found to enhance the longevity of tuberose flowers.

The use of chemicals on the plants to prevent the pathogen will have a direct impact on extending the post-harvest life. Generally, if produce has suffered an infection during development its storage or marketable life may be adversely affected. The banana that suffers a severe infection with diseases such as leaf spot may ripen prematurely or abnormally after harvest and in mango, it is rapid post-harvest loss. Pre-harvest application of chemicals like MH on the onion field to prevent them from sprouting during storage. Infection by fungi, bacteria, mites, and insects reduces longevity as well as consumer acceptability. Tissue damage caused by them shows wilting and produces ethylene leading to early senescence. Vascular diseases/stem rot/root rot of floral corps hinder the transport and affect the post-harvest life and quality. The potato tuber moth may infest tubers during growth if they are exposed above. the soil and subsequently in storage. Similarly, inside greenhouse if we do not control thrips and mites’ infestation on time then harvested fruits would be having visible spots, and during grading sorting such fruits are rejected, as shown in Fig. 1.6. While using any agrochemicals we need to take care of their dose and MRL (i.e., minimum residue level) value also. We need to ensure such chemicals shouldn’t be used just before harvesting otherwise they may cause adverse effects among people who consume them.

Figure 1.6 Thrips attack in Capsicum and cucumber.

1.2.10 Harvesting index

Some sign which indicated right time to harvest crop is known as harvesting index. In the case of color capsicum when 70% of color changes red/yellow from green color is considered as the best time to harvest as shown in Fig. 1.7. Since the remaining 30% coloration will happen during transportation and supply chain. Similarly, tomatoes are also plucked before it ripens completely otherwise they will damage during transportation. Harvesting index depends on supply chain and end use also, e.g., tomatoes for processing purpose need to be harvested after complete ripening (Mustafa & Adem, 2019).

Figure 1.7 Harvesting index of capsicum.

Apart from harvesting index harvesting method is also an important step to reduce the post-harvest losses, e.g., Onion stalk should be 3–4 inches during harvesting (Fig. 1.8); this will extend its life cycle and protect it from disease and fungal infestation. Similarly, if we harvest tomatoes in cluster form then their pedicle and stems also enhance their shelf life (Fig. 1.8). Thus, harvesting index and harvesting method both are very important for fresh produces.

Figure 1.8 Harvesting method for onion and cherry tomatoes.

1.2.11 Protected cultivation

Protected cultivation is a very common practice in temperate countries but now spreading in tropical and sub-tropical also as it protects crops from adverse effects of climate change and crop productivity is manifold than open fields. Tomatoes, cucumber, and capsicum used to be common vegetable crops earlier but nowadays leafy vegetables, cabbage, broccoli, herbs and medicinal plants are also being grown for more productivity and less disease infestations (Sabir & Singh, 2013; Singh & Kumar, 2009). Another advantage is crops brown vertically thus more crops can accommodate in less area. Apart from vegetables flowers like rose, gerbera, and carnation, Lilium is also being grown inside greenhouses. Exotic crops like cherry tomatoes, gherkins and zucchini, and blueberries and strawberries are also being grown in protected cultivation due to controlled atmosphere option and crop productivity (Jiang et al., 2004; Wittwer & Castilla, 1995; Zabeltitz & Baudain, 1999). Since it is a bit expensive method, there are some other methods like low tunnel and stacking, which is low in cost but provide qualitative and quantitative improvement to fresh produces like strawberry, melon, Lettuce, broccoli, etc.

1.2.12 Mulching and bagging

Mulching has several advantages such as weed suppression, gain in root growth, and nutrient uptake, earlier ripening resulted in a higher yield of crops with minimum inputs (Clarkson and Frazier, 1957). Mulching is basically used to protect crop from unwanted weeds and to reduce labor cost but it has added advantage of soil moisture and temperature retention. Earlier people used to use agro waste like straws for this purpose but nowadays plastic-made mulching sheets are more common and user-friendly. Nowadays mulching is being used even in onion cultivation as shown in Fig. 1.9. These mulching sheets protected fruits from contact directly with the soil surface thus it doesn’t get dirty and post-harvest task to become easy while grading and sorting (Shrefler & Brandenberger, 2014).

Figure 1.9 Use of mulching sheet in onion cultivation.

Similarly, bagging is another simple and useful practice that is becoming common these days in fruits especially. Once fruit setting is done, fruits should be protected from direct sunlight and birds to keep their skin clean which is an advantage in market (Fig. 1.10). This method is very common in Banana, Guava, Papaya, Mango, etc. (Devalla et al., 2016; Jannoyer & Chillet, 1998; Sharma et al., 2014; Singh et al., 2007).

Figure 1.10 Bagging of guava fruits.

1.3 Conclusion

Pre-harvest treatments are equally important as post-harvest components while dealing with post-harvest loss. Though these pre-harvest treatment effects are visible in long term, farmers do not care much about it in their traditional practice but as corporate farming and the export market are booming for fresh produces, it is going to be important. Thus, people should understand these small good agriculture practices and accordingly explore market for quality produces. There are companies in market who are ready to pay extra price if someone can ensure quality for their fresh produces thus farmers have to follow a strict package of practice for their crops and their destination market.

Acknowledgment

Dr. Akhilesh Kumar is horticulture consultant and has catered his services in different states of India for fresh produce. Dr. Bhoopendra Kumar Singh is working for multinational company and deals with quality control of fresh produce across year from different states of India. Both authors expressly acknowledge their clients for their consent to share and publish relevant photographs.

References

Ahmad and Siddiqui, 2015 Ahmad MS, Siddiqui MW. Factors affecting postharvest quality of fresh fruits. In: Ahmad MS, Siddiqui MW, eds. Postharvest quality assurance of fruits, practical approaches for developing countries. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2015;:7–32. http://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21197-8_2.

Ainsworth and Long, 2015 Ainsworth EA, Long SP. What have we learned from 15 years of free-air CO2 enrichment (FACE)? A meta-analytic review of the responses of photosynthesis, canopy properties and plant production to rising CO2. The New Phytologist. 2015;165:351–372.

Al-Saif et al., 2022 Al-Saif AM, Mosa WFA, Saleh AA, et al. Yield and fruit quality response of pomegranate (Punica granatum) to foliar spray of potassium, calcium and kaolin. Horticulture. 2022;8:946 https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae8100946.

Clarkson and Frazier, 1957 Clarkson V, Frazier W. Plastic mulches for horticultural crops (Station Bulletin 562) Corvallis, OR: Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University;