Frommer's England and Scotland

By Jason Cochran, Stephen Brewer, Deborah Collcutt and 4 more

Frommer’s books aren’t written by committee, by A.I., or by travel writers who simply pop in briefly to a destination and then consider the job done. We use seasoned, locally-based journalists like Deborah Collcutt, Katie Featherstone, Samantha Priestley, Simon Willmore, and Donald Strachan, plus part-time residents like Jason Cochran and Stephen Brewer because they are all real experts.  The five of them spent months checking out all of England’s and Scotland’s best hotels, attractions, shops, wineries, and restaurants in person, so they could offer authoritative, candid reviews that will help you find the venues that suit your tastes and budget. In short, use this book and you’ll be eating in the places most tourists don’t know about, visiting top attractions at times when the crowds are at their thinnest, and patronizing the bars and clubs Brits and Scots hold dear. 

Inside the guide:

• Full-color photos and helpful maps, including a detachable foldout map
• Detailed itineraries for planning your trip to suit your schedule and interests (and help you avoid lines and crowds)
• Candid reviews of the best restaurants, historic sights, museums, tours, shops, and experiences―and no-punches-pulled info on the ones not worth your time and money
• Accurate, up-to-date info on transportation, useful websites, telephone numbers, and more
• Compelling cultural information so that you’ll better understand the history, cuisine, and traditions of both Britain and Scotland
• Budget-planning help with the lowdown on prices and ways to save money, whether you’re traveling on a shoestring or in the lap of luxury

About Frommer's: There’s a reason Frommer’s has been the most trusted name in travel for more than 65 years. Arthur Frommer created the best-selling guide series in 1957 to help American servicemen fulfill their dreams of travel in Europe, and since then, we have published thousands of titles, become a household name, and helped millions upon millions of people realize their own dreams of seeing our planet. Travel is easy with Frommer’s.

• Language: English
• Publisher: FrommerMedia
• Release date: Oct 10, 2023
• ISBN: 9781628875607

Book preview

Blenheim Palace, in the Thames Valley, a masterpiece of 18th-century architecture built for the Churchill family.

Where to begin your journey through the two largest countries of the United Kingdom? In these pages, we share the best of the best: the places we love and that we think you will, too. From the streets of cosmopolitan London to a far-flung, unspoiled green and pleasant land that hasn’t changed for centuries, England and Scotland are greater than the sum of their parts. A respect for the past rubs along with a vibrant and innovative outlook, tremendous diversity, and dynamic cultural life.

Start in London with its historic sights (the Tower, St Paul’s), the British Museum (free, like most state museums in the U.K.), expansive parks, and even more expansive shopping. For a closer look at urban England, move on to Manchester, cradle of the Industrial Revolution and now reborn; Liverpool, with its Beatles and soccer heritage; and smaller cities with sublime architecture, such as the majestic crescents of Georgian Bath and the studious colleges of Oxford. Each will inspire you in a different way. Scotland’s cities shine, too: Edinburgh oozes history in contrasting Old and New Towns, and Glasgow claims Scotland’s top art galleries, best dining, and unbeatable nightlife.

Beyond the city limits, England and Scotland have still more to offer, from the brooding glens of the Highlands to the fens of East Anglia and the Lake District scenery that so inspired the Romantic poets (and Taylor Swift). Amid it all are 13 national parks, from the majestic bleakness of Dartmoor and the North York Moors to the rolling hills in the South Downs. There’s dramatic coastline, too, from Cornwall in the southwest to Whitby, whose ruined abbey inspired Bram Stoker’s Dracula. These countries are relatively small, so a day’s journey can take you across several different landscapes. Outdoor enthusiasts can explore mountain ranges, vast sandy beaches, or rugged moorland, as well as top golf courses, first-class fishing, and limitless hiking.

The Best authentic Experiences

Having a pint: It could be at a centuries-old pub on the Yorkshire Moors or a little place in the backstreets of Southwark; it might be a famous inn or somewhere unassuming. Nothing helps you appreciate the scenery quite like a pint glass filled with good British beer.

The Lake District’s romantic scenery has long inspired poets and artists.

Taking a bath in Bath: The stunning, steaming Roman Baths (p. 244) are there to visit. Then you can sample the waters at the modern Thermae Bath Spa (p. 251), an open-air pool with views across the UNESCO World Heritage rooftops.

Whisky tasting on Islay, Scotland: Check your spelling—whisky, never whiskey—then debate with locals over the peat-and-seaweed-scented merits of a dram of Bowmore, Bunnahabhain, Lagavulin, Laphroaig, and others distilled and aged on one small island. See p. 617.

Edinburgh at Festival time: Every August Edinburgh erupts with culture, art, dance, politics, music, and street performance as a clutch of festivals—headed by the Edinburgh International Festival, the unstoppable Fringe, and the Military Tattoo—sweep across every venue in the city. See p. 504.

Reveling on the South Bank: London’s arts quarter incorporates both the 1950s beauty of the Royal Festival Hall and the brutal modernism of the National Theatre. Street theater rubs shoulders with classic productions, and there’s usually something to enjoy for free. See chapter 4.

Admiring London from the summit of St Paul’s: You really can climb up to that glorious cathedral dome, which has 360-degree views over the capital. You’re at the heart of where modern London began. If that’s uplifting, the view down is deliciously dizzying. See p. 90.

Shopping in the grandest stores of all: And, no, we don’t mean Harrods. Liberty of London and Selfridges, both designed and built by Americans, redefined sales methods and even played roles in world history. See Shopping in chapter 4.

Eating local and seasonal, everywhere: The variety and quality of produce in these islands is better than ever. Venison from Highlands estates, shellfish straight from the day-boat, succulent rare-breed beef, saltmarsh-reared lamb, any of 700 local cheeses, and much, much more: It’s right on your doorstep. See Eating Local boxes in each chapter.

The Millennium Bridge links London’s South Bank with St Paul’s Cathedral.

The best Accommodations

A cottage rental on a rural estate: Britain is awash with quaint rowhouses and historic estates whose accommodations have been modernized without sacrificing centuries-old character. Often available for 3 or 4 nights at a time, cottages get you closer to under-visited rural gems like Yorkshire (p. 451), Suffolk (p. 373), or Wiltshire (p. 220). You’ll find vacationing Brits there, but these lodgings slip under the radar of North American visitors. See Cottages & Other Vacation Rentals in chapter 19 (p. 699).

The Feathered Nest, Cotswolds: A stone house in a picturesque village nicely mixes country antiques, sophisticated-yet-casual décor, open hearths, and sublime views of pastures and woodland. It is the ideal Cotswolds retreat. See p. 406.

Pelirocco, Brighton: Rarely has a hotel so fully suited its hometown: Edgy, irreverent, and more than a little risqué, the Pelirocco is truly one of a kind. And the seaside hospitality is also 100 percent on-point. See p. 209.

Fingal, Edinburgh: A luxury boat hotel once used by the Northern Lighthouse Board for ferrying keepers and supplies, it’s now run by Royal Yacht Britannia Trust: Cabins have all the glamour of a superyacht. Guests can explore its history in the old engine room and ship’s logs. See p. 516.

The Gainsborough Bath Spa: Enjoy the soothing waters, which gave Bath its fame (and name) in the luxury of this Georgian gem. Guestrooms are luxurious, and service hits the perfect note. See p. 252.

Dakota, Glasgow: Urbane elegance is on conspicuous display throughout this stunning redo of a 1950s office building. Discreetly lit lounges and stylish rooms make guests feel right at home—if they’re lucky enough to live in such design-perfect surroundings. See p. 579.

Gray’s Court, York: A 21st-century boutique hotel that’s also steeped in heritage, complete with Georgian dining room and oak-paneled Jacobean Long Gallery, alongside rooms you quickly sink into. It’s the perfect base for exploring this ancient city. See p. 457.

The best Restaurants

Rules, London: It might even be the oldest restaurant in London, but what’s certain is that Rules was established as an oyster bar in 1798. Long a venue for the theatrical elite and literary beau monde, it still serves the traditional dishes that delighted Edward VII and his mistress, Lillie Langtry, who began their meals with champagne and oysters upstairs. The food’s good; the atmosphere is great. See p. 131.

The Fat Duck, Berkshire: Nothing shows England’s role as a culinary innovator more than this multi-awarded restaurant, a window into the singularly creative mind of Heston Blumenthal. The earthy porridge (snails, oats, ham, almonds) is genius, and dishes such as salmon poached in licorice gel are a whimsical treat. See p. 154.

A sleek yacht-like room at The Fingal, a luxury boat hotel at the docks in Leith, Edinburgh.

Snail porridge, an iconic dish at Heston Blumenthal’s Fat Duck in Bray.

Unruly Pig, Woodbridge, Suffolk: It may look ordinary from the outside, but this extraordinary dining pub continues to push the boundary of affordable, modern British cooking—and has gathered multiple awards in the process. It’s well worth the detour. See p. 378.

Mr. Thomas’s Chop House, Manchester: It’s easy to imagine yourself among mustachioed 19th-century burghers as you settle into a Victorian pub whose traditional British food throws caloric caution to the wind. Corned beef hash simmered for 10 days or homemade steak and kidney pie may cause your waistcoat to pop. See p. 405.

Gamba, Glasgow: The place for seafood lovers to splurge when fish and chips just won’t do. In this secret cellar off Blythswood Square, all bounty hails from Scottish waters: mussels from sea lochs, langoustine from the Isle of Skye, and peat-smoked haddock from Gigha. See p. 584.

The best Family Experiences

Chowing down at Cadbury World, Birmingham: It’s not the magical world of Willy Wonka, but it’s as close as you’ll get. Kids and parents come away with a new appreciation for the chocolate business. And how many tours end in the world’s largest candy store? See p. 332.

Discovering the Glasgow Science Centre: Housed in a titanium-clad pod on the south bank of the Clyde, this family-focused attraction inspires and informs all ages on the concepts behind science and technology. An IMAX cinema adds some wow-factor. See p. 575.

Kicking back on the sands of Southwold, Suffolk: This is old-school beach fun in a genteel way, with ice creams, gentle waves, and an Edwardian pier. And for the grownups, there’s the Lord Nelson pub at the top of the steps. See p. 373.

Exploring underground Edinburgh: Journey deep into Edinburgh’s dark side on a tour through spooky underground vaults and long-buried city streets. Listen to tales of grim goings-on as you explore this subterranean realm, home to many of the city’s ghosts. See p. 498.

Losing your way in the world’s most famous hedge maze: The green labyrinth at Hampton Court twists and turns for almost half a mile. When you extricate yourselves, stroll through centuries of architectural styles at this stunning palace, home of many an English monarch. Don’t forget to pick up a kids’ activity trail. See p. 102.

Boat tripping from Mull: Take your family on a sea safari aboard any of several boats departing from Tobermory harbor. Tours range from 2-hour jaunts to a local seal colony to all-day whale-watching adventures. See p. 623.

Ships ahoy at the Historic Dockyard, Portsmouth: Still a major naval berth, Portsmouth’s Historic Dockyard preserves such English maritime icons as HMS Victory, which helped Lord Nelson beat the French at the 1805 Battle of Trafalgar, and the Tudor-era Mary Rose, which sank as King Henry VIII watched in horror. One ticket gets you into both (and more), plus a boat trip around the harbor. See p. 229.

Walking down Diagon Alley, near St Albans: A vast sound stage outside London preserves sets, costumes, endless props and gadgets, and even the original Hogwarts Express from the Harry Potter movies. This is no theme park, but a genuine glimpse into moviemaking. See p. 178.

The best Museums

British Museum, London: When Sir Hans Sloane died in 1753, he bequeathed to Britain his collection of art and antiquities, forming the nucleus of a huge collection that grew even more with the acquisitions of an Empire. Here, you’ll find such treasures as the Rosetta Stone and the Parthenon Marbles (which Greece still want back). See p. 67.

Tate Britain, London: Sir Henry Tate, a sugar producer, started it all with 70 or so paintings; the collection grew considerably when artist J. M. W. Turner bequeathed 300 paintings and 19,000 watercolors. This original Tate site, which focuses on British art dating back to 1500, is also the best place in the world to see Pre-Raphaelite art. See p. 79.

The Sainsbury Wing at The National Gallery, London.

National Gallery, London: A who’s who of Western painting—from Da Vinci to Velázquez and Rembrandt to Cézanne—fills this astounding art museum. The Sainsbury Wing has one of the world’s great Renaissance art collections. See p. 72.

Imperial War Museum Duxford, near Cambridge: Nowhere is the 20th-century bond between Britain and North America so tangible as in the hangars of this WW2 (and still working) airfield, with its unrivaled collection of historic aircraft, military and civilian. See p. 365.

Burrell Collection, Glasgow: Magnificent art and artifacts amassed by shipping magnate Sir William Burrell and his wife, Lady Constance Burrell, are shown off in quarters amid the woods and meadows of Pollok Country Park. A 16th-century castle portal, a woven Persian carpet with frolicking animals, a Rembrandt self-portrait—you will no doubt find your own favorite treasures. See p. 577.

Ashmolean, Oxford: Displaying a collection well-stocked with archaeological wonders, the building oozes mid-19th century neoclassical grandeur, while displays and layout are pure 21st century. It’s a winning combination. See p. 160.

Victoria & Albert Museum, London: The greatest decorative arts museum in the world, it also has medieval English treasures, the best collection of Indian art outside India, and the largest store of Renaissance sculpture outside Italy. See p. 87.

The best Castles & Palaces

Holyroodhouse, Edinburgh: Sealing the foot of Edinburgh’s Royal Mile, the Palace of Holyroodhouse remains the British monarch’s official residence in Scotland. It simply drips with art, antique furniture, and tales of murder—palaces don’t come much finer. See p. 498.

Tintagel Castle, Devon: King Arthur probably did not live here, atop steep cliffs above the churning sea—but that’s beside the point. Make the precarious climb just for views of the most dramatic coastal scenery in the southwest. See p. 267.

Alnwick Castle, Northumberland: Turreted Alnwick—which you may recognize as Hogwarts in the first two Harry Potter movies—is the second-largest inhabited castle in England, after Windsor. Its grounds contain the world’s biggest treehouse and a Poison Garden, planted with species known for their ability to kill. See p. 482.

Alnwick Castle, Northumberland.

Leeds Castle, Kent: Britain’s most genteel castle sits in the middle of a lake surrounded by landscaped parkland. Pack a picnic, walk, and marvel at a serene sight that has survived for centuries. See p. 197.

Eilean Donan, Highlands: Scotland’s most photographed castle guards a tiny island at the confluence of three lochs. Captured at dusk, like a lonely sentinel reflected in calm tidal waters, it’s the quintessential image of Highlands romance. See p. 676.

Blenheim Palace, near Oxford: One of England’s largest houses was built in the early 18th century for the Duke of Marlborough. Its architect, the celebrated John Vanbrugh, fell out with the duke’s wife and never saw it completed, but he left a masterpiece of the English Baroque (later the birthplace of Winston Churchill). It’s the only private address in England still known as a palace. See p. 171.

The best of the Outdoors

Riding the Ullswater Steamer, Cumbria: There’s nothing like huddling up against the mist as a little Victorian boat sails the length of the Lake District’s pristine showpiece. Hop off halfway back for a scenic hike. See p. 432.

Teeing off on the St Andrews links: Often called the Home of Golf, St Andrews claims a collection of prime links courses, including the iconic Old Course. Book a tee time well in advance for a round at this golf shrine; its layouts are undiminished by time. See p. 595.

Highland Coos, a beloved breed of Scottish cattle, grazing in Glencoe.

Wild walking and wildlife watching on the North Norfolk coast: At Blakeney a 4-mile sand spit, mud flats, and marshes host England’s largest colonies of breeding seals; adjoining Cley Marshes is a stopping point for migrating geese, ducks, and wading birds. Nearby Brancaster’s sands offer miles of bracing walks between dunes and the North Sea. See p. 388.

Going wild on Dartmoor: The inspiration for Arthur Conan Doyle’s spookiest Sherlock Holmes tale, The Hound of the Baskervilles, this sprawling national park undulates for mile after ominous mile, rising to steep hills and then plunging into deep gorges. Walking or driving across it is an adventure, all the more so when a herd of wild ponies runs by. See p. 267.

Standing on Hadrian’s Wall, Northumberland: This Roman monument’s scale is breathtaking—from any viewpoint, it weaves off in both directions, across hill and dale, coast to coast. Walking all 73 miles is the ultimate achievement. Pop into the remains of its forts if you can’t. See p. 480.

Photographing Glencoe: A trek through Glencoe—on foot or by car—is one of Scotland’s most dramatic journeys. The whole place has a brooding, claustrophobic grandeur, peppered (or is that your imagination?) with memories of the most notorious massacre in Scots history. Capture it on camera, if you can. See p. 674.

The best Free Things to Do

Visiting the great (state) museums: Britain’s state museums and galleries—including most of the big names—show off their collections for free. In London alone, this includes the British Museum, National Gallery, National Portrait Gallery, Tate Britain, Tate Modern, Natural History Museum, Science Museum, V&A, and more. See Exploring London, p. 66. Outside the capital, add to the list Liverpool’s Walker Gallery (p. 416), Edinburgh’s National Museum of Scotland (p. 498), and York’s National Railway Museum (p. 456).

Bagging a Munro, Highlands: A Munro is any Scottish mountain higher than 3,000 feet high (a nod to Hugh Munro, who compiled the original list in 1891), with 283 now on the list. Why not start on Britain’s highest mountain, 33⁄4 miles southeast of Fort William? At 1,342m (4,403 ft.), the snowcapped granite mass of Ben Nevis dominates this part of Scotland. A trip to its summit can be done in a day, but you must come properly prepared. See p. 670.

Watching the sunset from Waterloo Bridge: This famous river crossing is perfectly positioned to watch the embers of the day dissipate behind the Houses of Parliament. The view even inspired the Kinks’ chart-topping 1967 song, Waterloo Sunset, with the lines: As long as I gaze on / Waterloo sunset / I am in paradise. Look east to catch the last rays bouncing off the dome of St Paul’s Cathedral, the spires of Wren’s City churches, and towering glass skyscrapers. See p. 90.

Passing the Eastgate Clock on a tour of Chester’s well-preserved Roman walls.

Walking Chester’s Roman walls: A stroll along Britain’s largest remaining circuit of Roman walls evokes the days when the legions defended the empire, Saxons warded off raiding Vikings, and Normans battled Welsh warriors. Views over the countryside and Chester’s Roman, medieval, and Georgian monuments are glorious. See p. 425.

Browsing at London’s Borough Market: The sight and smell of fresh produce are heaven at this longstanding magnet for London foodies. Tucked under the railway near London Bridge Station, there’s a feel of the past, combined with the eco-friendly ethics that are so very now. See p. 139.

The most Overrated

Punting on the Cam, Cambridge: Okay, lying in a boat and gliding past some of the world’s most storied colleges can be romantic. But it’s much more satisfying to absorb Cambridge’s atmosphere from its medieval lanes and sweeping lawns—and you won’t risk dunking yourself in front of an audience.

Walking the main street of Clovelly, Devon: We agree—Clovelly is just lovely. But you have to pay to enter the picturesque village, just for the pleasure of climbing down its precipitous High Street. England has plenty of similar scenes that are free of charge and easier to navigate.

Visiting Stonehenge, Wiltshire: There’s no denying the historical importance of these standing stones. With rocks that weigh in at 50 tons apiece—each several millennia old—this windswept spot really does awaken emotions. It’s just…there’s not very much to see. Visit, sure; but allow less time than you’d expect. Instead, climb Amesbury Hill, 11⁄2 miles away along the A303, for a free panoramic view; or visit Avebury (p. 238), which we always find a more enchanting Neolithic site.

The best Neighborhoods

Castlefield and the Quays, Manchester: Cobbled canal-side paths, brick warehouses, and a network of railways are preserved at the 17-acre Castlefield Urban Heritage Park. Much of Britain’s industrial might centered on the nearby Salford Quays, docklands that flourished after the Manchester Ship Canal opened in the 1890s, connecting the city with Liverpool and the sea. The Museum of Science and Industry (p. 400) and Imperial War Museum North (p. 397) are essential stops. See p. 392.

London’s East End: Join the capital’s fashionable folk in the streets and alleyways of new East London. Shop designer boutiques and vintage stores in Shoreditch, Brick Lane, and Columbia Road. Then dine out on pho, Indian street food, or Turkish BBQ, washed down with a microbrewery beer. Shoreditch, Hoxton, and Dalston keep jumping well into the small hours. See chapter 4.

Stockbridge, Edinburgh: It’s like a pretty village within the city limits. North of the New Town, Stockbridge offers an upmarket smattering of delis, gastropubs, and designer boutiques, plus Inverleith Park and the Botanic Gardens—or head down to the Water of Leith, a river that winds through the city to historic docklands. See chapter 15.

The best Architecture

Royal Mile, Edinburgh: Stunning views, narrow closes, and dark wynds (alleys) radiate in all directions along this historic street, the backbone of Edinburgh’s medieval Old Town. Take in the many free museums and enjoy a teeming sea of life as you roam. See chapter 15.

The Shard, London: It’s no easy task to make a steel-and-glass skyscraper into something totally original, but celebrated architect Renzo Piano managed it. Standing 337m (1,107 ft.) above London Bridge, this is Western Europe’s tallest building: the pinnacle, literally, of the postmodern architecture that has swept urban Britain. See p. 95.

Gateshead Millennium Footbridge, Newcastle: This curving, modernistic bridge looks like a blinking eye when it tilts to let boats pass along the River Tyne. At other times, it’s like a rainbow joining the quays of Newcastle and art quarters of Gateshead. See p. 473.

Salisbury Cathedral, Wiltshire: The most architecturally unified of England’s great Gothic cathedrals owes its harmony to the speed at which it was built: It took under 40 years from 1220. It’s been painted by Constable and repaired by Sir Christopher Wren and still stands proud over this quaint city’s water meadows. See p. 232.

Borders Abbeys, Scotland: Four great ruined abbeys—Kelso, Dryburgh, Jedburgh, and Melrose—form the heart of the Scottish Borders. Brought to their knees by the English and then the Reformation, these former ecclesiastical powerhouses remain magnificent even in ruins. See chapter 16.

Salisbury Cathedral.

Tate Modern, London: Enter this former power station beside the Thames to gawp at the vast scale of its Turbine Hall, which often houses provocative art installations, from monstrous spiders to a brain forest with mysterious soundscapes. Delve into the galleries to find Dali, Warhol, Picasso, and a café with one of London’s best views. See p. 92.

Sherborne Abbey, Dorset: Gothic-era builders in England’s West Country were the first to develop fan vaulting as a way to spread the weight of a roof—so no wonder the nave of Sherborne’s abbey church has one of the country’s most impressive examples. See p. 240.

undiscovered England

Enjoy winter in the garden, Cambridge: The University Botanic Garden is a year-round delight, but few visitors explore in winter, when intelligent planting provides multihued stems and bark, plus winter-flowering plants and gives way to Lenten roses and early wild daffodils. See p. 362.

Visit another place on the Lancashire coast: A hundred figures cast in iron rise from the sand for 2 miles along the coast at Crosby, north of Liverpool. As they gaze out to the Irish Sea, you can do the same. See p. 421.

Walk in King Harold’s final footsteps, East Sussex: There’s something tantalizing about treading on grass where English history changed forever. The site of the Battle of Hastings—the decisive tussle of the Norman Conquest—is quietly impressive, with an informative visitor center. See p. 201.

Roam the canals, Birmingham: Urban waterways were the highways of the Industrial Revolution. Following their quays and towpaths shows off Birmingham’s past; lofts and hip restaurants signal a 21st-century rebirth. See p. 108.

See England as Turner saw it, Kent: The simple but stunning Turner Contemporary gallery sits on the seafront in Margate, on the very spot where J. M. W. Turner stayed to paint Kent seascapes. The sensational light here, on England’s eastern tip, illuminates the building at sunset. See p. 190.

secret Scotland

Necropolis, Glasgow: Rising behind a magnificent cathedral—Scotland’s only complete medieval cathedral—this steep green hillside is occupied by an eerie city of the dead, full of Victorian monuments and mausoleums. A guided tour brings the site to life, in a manner of speaking. See p. 566.

Take a guided tour of the Necropolis, Glasgow’s eerie Victorian city of the dead.

The Trossachs: Ruled for generations by the MacGregor clan, the Trossachs combine mist-shrouded lochs with legends of Rob Roy. Spend half a day following the A821 from Callander to Aberfoyle as it threads through dramatic terrain and detour to Loch Katrine. See chapter 17.

Haunting ancient castles: Scotland is littered with ruined castles, from Urquhart (p. 643) on Loch Ness, to Duart (p. 623) on Mull, to cliff-top Tantallon (p. 530), east of Edinburgh where the Firth of Forth meets the North Sea.

Falkirk Wheel: A triumph of Scottish engineering, this gleaming clawlike structure is the world’s first (and only) rotating boatlift. The Wheel effortlessly swings boats the 35m (115 ft.) between the Union and Forth and Clyde canals, using only a tiny amount of power and Archimedes’ Principle. See p. 526.

Sir Walter Scott’s home, Abbotsford: Burns is Scotland’s most famous bard, but it was novelist Sir Walter Scott who changed the public image of the Scottish Highlands—no longer seen as a wild, inhospitable place but as a land of soaring mountains, majestic stags, and rushing rivers. Visit his Borders home to learn about his life and works, which included Rob Roy and The Heart of Midlothian. See p. 546.

The Victorian-era Grand Gallery of Edinburgh’s National Museum of Scotland, a treasure trove of historical artifacts.

Exploring England and Scotland is like climbing a mountain range: You want to keep going, to see what’s over the next ridge or around the corner. It’s addictive. These countries may not be large—their combined landmass would squeeze inside Kansas—but they are crammed full of incredible places and unique experiences. And not just historic sights, either. Sports, music, theater, fashion, and food here are among the best in the world. Such is the variety packed into a relatively small space; there is always a new region worth visiting. When you’ve seen one part of England and Scotland, you’ll want to see more—and understanding current politics and some historical context can help you get even more out of a trip.

England & Scotland Today: Brexit & Beyond

When Britain voted to leave the European Union in 2016, few could have predicted the turmoil that would follow. However, political conflict was always inevitable along one specific axis: between England and Scotland, the two largest nations of Great Britain.

Why? Because while 53% of voters in England chose to leave the E.U., the vote in Scotland was much more emphatic, in the opposite direction: 62% in favor of remaining within the E.U. Yet their relative populations—and a pro-Brexit majority in Wales—meant leave narrowly carried the countrywide vote. Britain’s constitution has a one for all, all for one ethos: The entire United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland formally left the E.U. on January 31, 2020.

Even against a background of Covid-19, war in Ukraine, and global economic strife, the dynamics unleashed by Brexit have shaped politics in England and Scotland like nothing else. Five different British prime ministers held office within six years, one lasting just seven weeks—unprecedented instability. Meanwhile north of the border, an increasingly independent-minded—if not (yet?) independent—Scotland was a model of stability under the Scottish National Party (SNP) First Minister Nicola Sturgeon. For almost a decade after she became SNP leader in 2014, election after election seemingly endorsed her liberal-left Europhile style, even as many Scots remain wary of pursuing full separation from Britain. Her successor, Humza Yousaf, who took over in March 2023, has a tough act to follow.

Yet even all this turmoil hit pause for a few solemn weeks in 2022, when Britain mourned the death of Queen Elizabeth II. Beamed into homes all over the world, the funeral of this beloved monarch provided a rare moment of near-unity for Brits and Anglophiles everywhere. Even committed republicans tended to express admiration for Queen Elizabeth and the role she played in 70 years on the British throne. Whether 2023’s newly crowned King Charles III will inspire the same adoration is uncertain. Yet both these grand ceremonial events highlighted the enduring—to some, perplexing—global interest in the British monarchy.

The Shard, in London, is Western Europe’s tallest building.

Back at ground level, life goes on in England and Scotland. Culturally, there’s a lot to shout about: Britain’s dynamic cultural milieu combines independent thinking, eccentricity, and verve. From Academy-award winning director Steve McQueen to the Arctic Monkeys, a booming British rap scene, Peaky Blinders on TV, and Carol Ann Duffy as Britain’s first female Poet Laureate, these are countries that revel in diversity. Plus—of course—there’s still Harry Potter, Downton Abbey reruns, and Bridgerton. Newcastle, Liverpool, Glasgow, and Manchester have all benefitted from major overhauls: There’s much more to urban Britain than just London.

The Making of England & Scotland

Prehistory & the Romans (3600

b.c.

–ca.

a.d.

400)

England and Scotland have several prehistoric sites, among which the most famous is Stonehenge near Salisbury (p. 230), which experts believe was a temple, possibly started in 3600

b.c.

and extended over subsequent centuries. Hadrian’s Wall (p. 480) is the most dramatic piece of architecture to survive from the Roman era, although Bath also has Roman Baths (p. 244). Roman remains elsewhere include the Roman Theatre at St Albans (p. 173) and sites in and around Chichester (p. 214).

Clans & kilts

To the outsider, Scotland’s deepest traditions appear to be based on the clan system of old, with all its paraphernalia of tartans and bagpipes. But this is a romantic illusion. In fact, a good part of the Scots—the 75% who live in the central Lowlands, for example—have little or no connection with the clansmen of earlier times.

The clan tradition dates from the tribal units of the country’s earliest Celtic history. Power was organized around chieftains, who commanded loyalty from the inhabitants of a region in exchange for protection against invasion. The position of chieftain wasn’t hereditary; land was owned by the clan. Rigidly militaristic and paternalistic—the stuff with which Scottish legend is imbued—the clan tradition is still honored today, albeit in a friendlier fashion than the bloody olden days.

Hadrian’s Wall in Northumberland, an impressive vestige of Britain’s years as a Roman colony.

In what is now England, local tribes clashed constantly over territory, which is why they failed to unite to prevent the first Roman invasion by Julius Caesar, the Roman governor of Gaul (France and Belgium), in 55

b.c.

Later, in

a.d.

43–44, Emperor Claudius invaded, capturing present-day Colchester, which was the capital for a while. By

a.d.

47, however, the Romans had also founded Londinium as a garrison and trading settlement. Remains of Roman London are still being discovered as new developments are built—you can see part of London’s original Roman wall near the Tower of London (p. 93).

A statue of ancient Queen Boudicca, Parliament Square, London.

There was little effective resistance to the Roman fighting machine, although there was one well-known uprising, led by Queen Boudicca of the Iceni tribe who ruled parts of East Anglia. The Romans had tried to force their will on Boudicca by publicly whipping her; she subsequently led a rebellion that razed Colchester. Then she marched on London (there’s a statue of Boudicca in Parliament Square; p. 78) and rampaged through St Albans, then known as Verulamium—70,000 people were supposedly killed. She was eventually defeated at the so-called Battle of Watling Street at an unknown location around

a.d.

60.

The Romans fared less well when they tried to invade Scotland in

a.d.

82. The land was occupied by a people known as the Picts (or Painted Ones), and despite spectacular bloodletting, the Romans failed to conquer them—Hadrian’s Wall marked the northern limits of Rome’s influence. The remains of this great wall lie firmly in England, with the Scottish border farther north.

After 350 years of rule, the Romans went home, abandoning the Romano-Britons. By 410, the Germanic Saxons, Jutes, and Angles had carved out settlements in southern and eastern England. The Saxons went on to dominate all but the far north, where the Romano-Britons were forced to flee. The Saxon kings reigned supreme until the Vikings—raiders, traders, and settlers from modern-day Scandinavia—took an interest in England and Scotland. They were eventually driven from Southern England by King Alfred the Great of Wessex, whose headquarters were at Winchester (p. 221). The Vikings were strong in the Northeast, as the Jorvik Viking Centre in York (p. 455) illustrates.

The Saxons maintained control of some southern regions, and Saxon king Edward the Confessor assumed the throne in 1042. Childless, he promised the crown to William, Duke of Normandy. Later, his adviser, Harold Godwinson, swore to support William’s claim to the throne. When Edward died in 1066 and Harold succeeded him, he surely knew trouble lay ahead. After fighting another Viking invasion, in the Northeast, Harold had to march south to meet the Normans at Battle (p. 201), near Hastings, in Sussex. Harold lost and died—marking the end of the Saxon era.

For further background, try historian Simon Schama’s BBC series A History of Britain, which begins around 3100

b.c.

and finishes in 1965; three companion books from the series are also available. Another source is journalist/broadcaster Andrew Marr’s series A History of Modern Britain with its companion book The Making of Modern Britain. Terry Deary’s incredible series of Horrible Histories children’s books have all the facts plus some delightful gore.

The Middle Ages (1066–1599)

William was crowned King William I at Westminster Abbey (p. 80) on Christmas Day 1066, and the Normans quickly colonized England. William’s success came partly from his building impregnable castles wherever they were needed—in 1078, for example, he built the original castle at Windsor (p. 151)—and his supporters soon built their own simple motte-and-bailey castles on the lands he gave them. The mottes—mounds of earth—still survive in many places; some were incorporated into the stone castles that replaced the original wooden baileys, or keeps. The Normans were also known for their religious architecture, with Ely Cathedral in Cambridgeshire (p. 367) among the most glorious examples of their work.

In Scotland, cultural assimilation with England gained pace under David I (1081–1153), who made land grants to many Anglo-Norman families, providing Scotland with a feudal aristocracy and bringing in ancient names such as Bruce, Fraser, and Lindsay. He also embarked on a lavish building spree. The now-ruined abbeys of Jedburgh, Kelso, Melrose, and Dryburgh (see chapter 16) are his legacy.

Dryburgh Abbey in The Scottish Borders, burial place of Sir Walter Scott.

England’s next significant king after William was Henry II, the first of the Plantagenet dynasty, who came to the throne in 1154. This French nobleman had made strategic marriages—when he married Eleanor of Aquitaine, he owned more of France than the French king did. They had eight children, among them Richard the Lionheart, who came to the throne as Richard I in 1189 and became an English folk hero—ironic because he didn’t like cold, wet England and preferred to fight for Christianity in the Crusades. His brother and successor, King John, was so unpopular that the Norman barons, whose families had been given their land by William I after the conquest, forced him to sign Magna Carta in 1215 at Runnymede (p. 149). Magna Carta set limits on the king’s power, giving all freemen (barons) rights and liberties, but more importantly, it meant English monarchs were no longer above the law. This document became the basis of the American Bill of Rights many centuries later.

The Plantagenets ruled for the next 200 years. The most significant for the Scots was Edward I, who yearned to conquer the entire island. Many of Scotland’s legendary heroes lived during this period: Sir William Wallace (1270–1305), who drove the English out of Perth and Stirling; Sir James Douglas, the Black Douglas (1286–1330), who terrorized the English borders; and Robert the Bruce (1274–1329), who finally succeeded in freeing Scotland from England. Scotland’s independence was formally recognized in the 1328 Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton.

Going gothic

As the Norman kings imported French culture into Britain, the French Gothic style of architecture soon took over. Beginning in the late 12th century, the rounded Romanesque arches were traded for pointy ones—an engineering discovery that freed churches from the heavy Norman walls and allowed ceilings to soar. The style is divided into three overlapping periods: Early English (1150–1300), the more elaborate Decorated (1250–1370), and soaring Perpendicular (1350–1550). The first to use pointy arches was Wells Cathedral (p. 257), while the purest example of Early English is Salisbury Cathedral (p. 232). Excellent examples of the Decorated Gothic style can be seen in the choirs of Exeter Cathedral (p. 262) and Ely Cathedral (p. 367); for Perpendicular Gothic, check out the chancel of Manchester Cathedral (p. 400) or Windsor Castle’s St George’s Chapel (p. 152).

Meanwhile, ordinary folk were having a hard time. The Black Death, a plague that had ravaged Europe, reached England in 1348. It killed one-third of the European population and half of England and Scotland and returned in 1361, 1374, and regularly thereafter until about 1670.

Among the Plantagenet courtiers was Geoffrey Chaucer, who wrote The Canterbury Tales—stories told by a group of pilgrims as they journeyed from London to Canterbury where Thomas Becket, Henry II’s Archbishop, had been murdered by Henry’s knights in Canterbury Cathedral (p. 181). The Tales were written in English in the late 1300s, unusual at the time because Latin and French dominated the written word.

The Tudors (1485–1603)

The reign of Henry Tudor—as Henry VII of England—is considered the close of the Middle Ages. He ended rivalry and war between the Houses of Lancaster and York by marrying Elizabeth of York, the eldest child of former King Edward IV. Henry was a clever king: Avoiding costly wars, forging trade alliances to create more wealth, setting up councils in the north, and reforming the judicial system. Next in line, flamboyant Henry VIII inherited a fortune from his father in 1509 and a wife from his elder brother, Arthur. Arthur had married the King of Spain’s eldest daughter, Catherine of Aragon, in 1501, but he died 5 months later. Catherine came with a huge dowry, so Henry VII petitioned the Pope to annul the marriage so his new heir, Henry, could marry her and keep the cash.

Catherine gave birth to several children, but only one daughter, Mary, survived. Henry wanted a son. By now he also wanted Anne Boleyn, born at Blickling Estate in Norfolk (p. 388) and a member of his wife’s court. Henry now petitioned the Pope in 1530 for an annulment to his marriage with Catherine, but the Pope didn’t want to upset the Spanish king. When Anne became pregnant, Henry secretly married her in 1533. The Pope declared the marriage invalid, so Henry announced himself Head of the Church of England, confirmed by an Act of Parliament in 1534. The Reformation had begun. In 1538, the Pope excommunicated Henry from the Catholic Church; Henry retaliated by closing all England’s monasteries and convents and selling off their land (the Dissolution of the Monasteries). Four more wives were to follow, before Henry was buried in St George’s Chapel at Windsor Castle (p. 151).

If Henry’s life was dramatic, what happened next was extraordinary. His sickly 10-year-old son succeeded him as Edward VI; during his 5-year reign, the Church of England finally became Protestant and adopted an English Book of Common Prayer. The atmosphere of religious fervor intensified when Edward’s Catholic elder sister Mary succeeded upon his death in 1553. Mary reintroduced Catholic bishops, revived heresy laws, and pronounced Protestantism a treasonable offense punishable by death. She had 300 Protestants burned at the stake during her 4-year reign. It’s no wonder she came to be called Bloody Mary.

Mary’s sister Elizabeth was under house arrest at Hatfield House (p. 177) when the news of Mary’s death arrived. She was crowned Queen Elizabeth in 1559 at Westminster Abbey. The Virgin Queen had many suitors but managed to play one against another so she could retain her own power. Elizabeth reversed Mary’s Catholic laws, working with Parliament to create an Anglican form of Protestantism that tolerated Catholicism. However, she was often the target of Catholic plots, some involving her cousin, Mary Queen of Scots (see below).

Mary, Queen of scots

When Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots (1542–87), took up her rule, she was a Roman Catholic of French upbringing trying to govern an unruly land to which she was a newcomer. Daughter of Scotland’s James V and France’s Mary of Guise, she became queen at only 6 days of age. At the age of 15, she married the heir to the French throne, but returned to Scotland after his death. Mary then set out on two roads that were anathema to the Scots: to make herself absolute monarch in the French style and to impose Roman Catholicism. The first alienated the Scottish nobles, and the second made her the enemy of John Knox and the Calvinists. After a series of disastrous political and romantic alliances, her life was ended by the executioner’s axe in England; the execution order reluctantly was issued by her cousin Elizabeth I, who saw her as a threat to the English throne. You can follow the dramatic story of her life at a string of palaces where she once lived. In the Borders, there’s Mary Queen of Scots’ Visitor Centre (p. 539); while in Edinburgh, at Holyroodhouse (p. 498), you can see where her Italian secretary, David Rizzio, was stabbed 56 times in front of her.

The Tudor Age produced some of England’s foundational literature. Shakespeare (1564–1616) was creating his vast body of work, with his plays performed in London at the Globe Theatre, which opened on the south bank of the Thames in 1599. A re-creation today sits just along the river (p. 319). One contemporary was Ben Jonson (1572–1637), a playwright, poet, and actor, best known for his satirical plays. Today, of course, the town of Stratford-upon-Avon (p. 314) stakes its draw for tourists on its connection to all things Shakespeare.

Union Between Scotland & England, then Civil War

In 1603, when Elizabeth I died childless, James VI of Scotland—son of Mary, Queen of Scots—assumed the throne of England as James I. Succeeding where his unfortunate mother had failed, he became the first Stuart monarch, and his coronation united England and Scotland—and broke the power of the Scottish lords.

Despite hopes for peace, religion again became a source of discontent. James—and his heir, Charles I—attempted to promote a Church of Scotland, governed by bishops on the model of the English church, instead of the Presbyterian Church’s self-ruling organization. So incensed were the Scots that in 1638 they signed the National Covenant, which not only reasserted the Reformation’s principles but also questioned the King’s right to make laws, a role the Covenanters believed belonged to Parliament.

Charles I believed strongly in the divine right of kings, however. When the English Parliament stripped away much of his authority in 1642, Charles went north to organize an army against the Parliamentary forces centered in London. A civil war ensued, with the forces of Parliament led to victory by Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658). Charles fled to Scotland, but the Scots turned him over to Parliament, and in 1649 he was convicted of treason and beheaded. Under the ensuing Commonwealth, Cromwell assumed a dominant political role and became Lord Protector in 1653. King in all but name, he ruled England until his death.

The Restoration (1660–89)

Among the legacies of Cromwell’s Commonwealth were a deep-seated distrust of military rule and a cautious religious tolerance, tempered by a suspicion of extremism. But the Restoration—when King Charles II returned—was notable primarily for its revelry and at times shocking licentiousness. Charles II was a patron of the theater, and Restoration comedy soon became known for its bawdy plots and satire, poking fun at political figures and topical events. William Wycherley’s 1675 play The Country Wife is still performed today.

This was also a period of scientific expansion. Mathematician Isaac Newton studied the composition of light, invented a reflecting telescope, and most famously of all, set out his theory of gravity and the laws of motion in 1687, only two years after Charles II’s death. Christopher Wren was also a mathematician, who in 1661 was made Professor of Astronomy at Oxford University. His knowledge of physics and engineering led to his commission to design the Sheldonian Theatre in Oxford (p. 164) in 1664.

The Monument to commemorate the Great Fire of London in 1666.

But it was the 1666 Great Fire of London that really gave Wren the opportunity to shine as an architect. London at the time was still a medieval city of half-timbered buildings, set close together in a maze of alleys and narrow streets. The city was filthy, with open sewers and little access to clean water; plague was persistent, peaking in the hot summer of 1665 with more than 1,000 Londoners dying every week. Then in September 1666, a fire started at the king’s bakery in Pudding Lane, in the old city. Ovens had not been properly extinguished overnight, sparks escaped, and fire spread through the wooden buildings. It was so intense that the lead roof of old St Paul’s Cathedral melted before the building burned down, along with 84 other churches.

The fire is commemorated by the Monument (p. 90), a 61.5m (202-ft.) tower topped by an urn of golden flames. It was designed by Sir Christopher Wren, and if you climb its 311 spiral steps, you can see many more buildings Wren designed after the fire, when modern London was created. Wren’s greatest triumph was the new St Paul’s Cathedral (p. 90). But he also designed 51 more new churches, as well as the Royal Observatory at Greenwich (p. 101), through which the Prime Meridian line runs, and Trinity College Library in Cambridge (p. 359).

Charles II was succeeded by his brother James II in 1685—an unpopular heir. Openly Catholic, he appointed Catholics to key posts and dismissed Parliament so he could rule without interference. In 1688 his wife gave birth to a son, which was the last straw for England’s Protestant nobility. They invited James’s Protestant daughter from his first marriage and her Dutch husband William of Orange to take the throne.

Glorious Revolution & Jacobite Rising

Supported by the English military chiefs whom James had alienated, William of Orange arrived with a small army, marching on London in what became known as the Glorious Revolution. James fled, and a new Parliament declared his abdication in 1688, freeing the throne for joint monarchs, James’ Protestant daughter, Mary II, and her husband, William III. Their reign had deep historical significance: It brought the end of a monarch’s divine right to rule England and Wales, placing laws on succession in the hands of Parliament, which also passed the Bill of Rights (1689) to prevent the throne from legislating or raising taxes without parliamentary consent. From this point onwards, a monarch could never dismiss Parliament. The Bill also stopped Catholics from taking the throne, a law that stands to this day.

Mary died of smallpox in 1694, and William died in 1702. They had no surviving children, so Mary’s sister, Anne, succeeded William. It was during her reign that England and Wales became politically united with Scotland to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain with the 1706 Act of Union.

However, the exiled ex-king James and then his son James Edward (the Old Pretender) continued to serve as rallying points for Scottish unrest. The Jacobites—the name comes from Jacobus, the Latin form of James—attempted unsuccessfully in 1715 to place the Old Pretender on the English throne and restore the Stuart line. When he died in exile, his son Charles Edward (the Young Pretender), better known as Bonnie Prince Charlie, carried on his father’s dream. A charismatic but unstable alcoholic, he was the central figure of the 1745 Jacobite uprising. The Glenfinnan Monument at the head of Loch Shiel (west of Fort William; p. 671) marks the spot where he raised his standard. Although the revolt was initially promising, Jacobite forces were eventually crushed at the Battle of Culloden (p. 636). Fearing a rebirth of Scottish nationalism, the clan system was rigorously suppressed; clans who supported the Jacobite cause lost their lands. Until 1782, the wearing of Highland dress was illegal.

One of the great legacies of Anne’s reign was architecture. Among the best-known Queen Anne buildings, Blenheim Palace (p. 171) in Woodstock, Oxfordshire, was built to reward the first Duke of Marlborough (John Churchill) for leading British troops to victory over the French in the 1704 Battle of Blenheim (part of the bloody Wars of the Spanish Succession). Anne was less lucky with heirs: She had 17 children but only one survived birth—and he died at age 11. Due to the Act of Succession, the Protestant heirs of Sophia of Hanover (James I’s granddaughter) were designated to take the throne, rather than James II’s Catholic heirs. Upon her death in 1714, Anne was succeeded by George of Hanover.

The Georgians (1714–1830)

Neither George I nor his son, George II, ever learned to speak English, sticking to their native German. Unsurprisingly they were disliked by the people. The first English-born king in the Hanover line, George III, is chiefly remembered for losing the American colonies and going mad (as portrayed in Alan Bennett’s 1991 play The Madness of King George)—but at least he could speak English.

Georgian England was a cruel and lawless period. This was the era of Dick Turpin, a highway robber who brought terror to Essex until his death in 1739. It was also a time of piracy: Blackbeard was born in Bristol in 1718 and looted ships off North Carolina. At least 200 hanging offenses—from murder to stealing fish—were enforced, while bear-baiting, badger-baiting, and cock fights were regarded as entertainment.

The Royal Crescent, Bath, an outstanding example of the Georgian era’s taste for Palladian architecture.

The Georgians had a keen eye for design, though, as evident from the period’s architecture. In London, architect John Nash was responsible for Regent Street and remodeled Buckingham Palace (p. 75), while architect John Soane designed the Bank of England in the City. (Sir John Soane’s Museum [p. 74] in London offers a fascinating peek into the era.)

During the 18th century, Scottish literature began to blossom, with a spate of lucid and powerful prose written in English: Roderick Random by novelist Tobias Smollett, The Wealth of Nations by economist Adam Smith, and A Treatise of Human Nature by philosopher David Hume. James Boswell was a friend and the biographer of Dr. Samuel Johnson. It was also in the 18th century that Robert Burns (1759–96) produced his famous verses combining the humor and vigor of Scottish speech with the lilt of Scottish songs. Burns, known especially for love lyrics and satires, is Scotland’s national bard and revered throughout the world; the Robert Burns Birthplace Museum (p. 594) is the centerpiece of the Burns mecca Alloway in Ayrshire, Scotland.

But Scotland was rapidly changing, due to the infamous Clearances between 1750 and 1850. Small farmers, or crofters, were expelled from ancestral lands to make way for sheep grazing—you can still see the ruins of deserted crofts, farmsteads, and villages all over the Highlands. Industrialization, civil unrest, migration to urban centers, and massive emigration to the United States, Canada, Australia, South Africa, and New Zealand all depopulated the countryside, dispersing the Scottish ethic throughout the world.

The Georgian arts Scene

The arts flourished during the Georgian era. In 1719 Daniel Defoe published his popular novel Robinson Crusoe; a mere 7 years later, in 1726 Anglo-Irish clergyman Jonathan Swift published a scathing satire in response, Gulliver’s Travels. Aristocratic oil portraits by Joshua Reynolds and Thomas Gainsborough (look for them in London’s Tate Britain, p. 79) stand in sharp contrast to William Hogarth’s satirical illustrations of the country’s low morals (see the originals of his masterpiece A Rake’s Progress at Sir John Soane’s Museum in London, p. 74).

Toiling in obscurity, Londoner William Blake brewed up apocalyptic visions in his illustrations and poetry such as Jerusalem; the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge (p. 359) has some fine examples of his work. John Constable made waves with paintings of his pastoral Suffolk countryside, now celebrated as Constable County, centered around the town of Dedham (p. 368). Another landscape and seascape painter, J. M. W. Turner flourished well into the Victorian era; both the Tate Britain (p. 79) and the Turner Contemporary museum at Margate (p. 190) display many of his huge light-dazzled canvases.

The mid-18th century to the early 19th century was also the era of the Romantic Poets, among them Percy Bysshe Shelley, Lord Byron, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and William Wordsworth; many Wordsworth and Coleridge connections can be explored around Grasmere (p. 436) in the Lake District.

The towering Scottish writer of the era was Sir Walter Scott (1771–1832), novelist and poet, known for Medieval Romanticism (Ivanhoe) and perceptive description of character and locales (The Heart of Midlothian); Scott’s manor Abbotsford (p. 546) is a top attraction in the Scottish Borders.

The years 1811–1820, the period before the Prince Regent became King George IV, lent its name to the Regency style in architecture, best illustrated in Brighton’s Royal Pavilion (p. 206), the Prince’s India-inspired summerhouse on England’s South Coast. Many of Bath’s beautiful Georgian buildings were also Regency haunts—indeed, the ancient spa city became the most fashionable outside London, thanks to royal patronage. Novelist Jane Austen included its Assembly Rooms (p. 248) in two of her novels, Persuasion and Northanger Abbey. There’s a Jane Austin Centre at the handsome Royal Crescent (p. 249), built between 1767 and 1774 and regarded as the pinnacle of Palladian architecture in Britain.

With the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815, Britain was emerging as the most powerful country in Europe. The Industrial Revolution had started (visit the Ironbridge Gorge Museums [p. 349] in Staffordshire to learn about its origins), and in 1825 the world’s first steam-driven passenger railway was opened between Stockton and Darlington, setting off a transport revolution—York’s National Railway Museum (p. 456) tells the story with a wealth of exhibits.

The Victorians (1837–1901)

England and Scotland are often defined by the Victorian Age. Britain became the most industrialized country in the world, fueled mainly by coal. Urban development boomed. But Victorian Britain was a hard place. The most influential Victorian writer was Charles Dickens (1812–70), who knew poverty first-hand: His father’s financial problems had landed them in a debtor’s prison when he was a boy. By Queen Victoria’s time, he was a best-selling author, using his status to dissect English society in novels such as Oliver Twist (1837–39), David Copperfield (1849–50), and Great Expectations (1860–61). The Charles Dickens Museum in London (p. 70) is a great place to start exploring his legacy. Born in Edinburgh, Robert Louis Stevenson (1850–94) carved out his own niche with such classics as Treasure Island and The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, as well as poems, especially for children.

Victorian-era painting was transformed by the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (William Holman Hunt, John Everett Millais, and Dante Gabriel Rossetti), whose work is well represented at Tate Britain in London (p. 79) and the Birmingham Museum & Art Gallery (p. 330). Art critic John Ruskin, who greatly promoted their work, was also a poet, conservationist, and social revolutionary; you can visit his home in the Lake District, Brantwood (p. 439). Influenced by the Pre-Raphaelites, William Morris launched the Arts & Crafts movement, which emphasized traditional artisanship; his home Kelmscott Manor (p. 291) is a good place to begin exploring the Arts & Crafts heritage of the Cotswolds.

The Pre-Raphaelites’ fairytale version of the Middle Ages influenced Gothic Revival architecture. Revival is a bit misleading—its practitioners often applied Gothic features at random. The best example is the Houses of Parliament in London (1835–52), designed by Charles Barry; his clock tower, usually called Big Ben after its biggest bell, has become an icon.

The queen that gave her name to the age, Victoria, was only 18 when she took the throne in 1837. She married her cousin Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha three years later. Contrary to Victoria’s image as a gloomy killjoy, she was lively and independent when young and very much in love with Albert. The couple were not popular, though, until Prince Albert gradually won admiration for his work on Britain’s behalf. His biggest triumph was the Great Exhibition of 1851 in the huge glass-built Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, which showcased Britain’s industrial and technological achievements, as well as exhibits from colonized countries. The exhibition’s profits funded construction of London’s Natural History Museum (p. 86), Science Museum (p. 87), and Victoria & Albert Museum (p. 87). Tragically, four years later Albert was dead from typhoid; in his memory, Victoria built the Royal Albert Hall (p. 86) and the Albert Memorial (p. 84). Heartbroken, Victoria retired to their favorite family home, Osbourne House on the Isle of Wight; she wore black for the rest of her life and withdrew from public life. But by her death at the beginning of the 20th century, Britain had the world’s largest Empire, a booming economy, and a growing middle class.

World Wars I & II (1914–45)

After the prosperity of the brief Edwardian era (1901–10), Britain joined World War I in August 1914, when Germany refused to withdraw from Belgium. Among the soldiers who chronicled the horror of trench warfare was Rupert Brooke, a Cambridge graduate who wrote the 1912 war poem The Old Vicarage, Grantchester. You can visit Grantchester (p. 361) to see the village church mentioned in his poem.

The wartime prime minister, Liberal Party leader Lloyd George, was given much of the credit for the Allies’ military success. Lloyd George said he wanted to create a land fit for heroes, but recession following the war delivered only unemployment, particularly in the industrial heartlands.

By September 1939, Britain was at war again. The emerging national hero, Winston Churchill, named prime minister in 1940, became the symbol of Britain’s fighting spirit during World War II. In June 1940 Churchill announced: . . . the Battle of France is over. I expect that the Battle of Britain is about to begin. France surrendered four days later and by July, German fighter planes were attacking shipping in the English Channel and coastal towns. By August, RAF airfields were under attack, and in September, London and other important cities were targeted. The Churchill War Rooms (p. 76) in London’s King Charles Street brings the conflict to life for visitors of all ages, while the Imperial War Museum Duxford (p. 397) near Cambridge vividly depicts the fight for air supremacy, which was over by the fall of 1940 with the RAF on top. "Never in the