Narcissism at Work: Personality Disorders of Corporate Leaders

By Marie-Line Germain

This book explores the damaging effects of personality disorders in corporate leaders, particularly in regard to organizational variables including employee productivity, motivation, well-being, retention, and ultimately, the organization’s bottom line. While helping employees recognize and understand the overt and covert characteristics of malignant narcissism, Narcissism at Work offers solutions and coping strategies vital for employees, industrial psychologists, human resource professionals, and organizational leaders in order to optimize business functions and increase employee well-being.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Palgrave Macmillan
• Release date: Jul 21, 2017
• ISBN: 9783319603308

Book preview

© The Author(s) 2018

Marie-Line GermainNarcissism at Workhttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60330-8_1

1. Introduction

Marie-Line Germain¹  

(1)

Western Carolina University, Asheville, NC, USA

Marie-Line Germain

Email: [e-mail]

Abstract

Germain presents a much-needed summary of the research on personality disorders of corporate leaders, while offering practical advice for the people who work with them. Focusing on the behaviors of leaders with observable Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD), the chapter strives to assist human resource (HR) professionals, managers, and employees in achieving a broad understanding of NPD, in order for employees to optimize relationships and advance their own careers.

Keywords

Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD) behaviorsWork relationshipsCareer

Inflated self-worth and a sense of entitlement have become pervasive in American youth (Twenge and Campbell 2009). Singers, actors, and other celebrities often express a highly exaggerated self-image, which may be perceived by youth as expected and desirable. The cult of celebrity can harm teenagers as they grow up in a world where being rich and famous is viewed as the highest achievement (Burgo 2015)—particularly when their parents expect them to be social winners. Celebrity worship encourages teens’ inherent narcissistic tendencies, offering an escape from their own shortcomings and, possibly, their own sense of shame. They come to associate fame with happiness and become convinced that those with talent, or perceived talent, will achieve success. Yet, narcissists are incapable of attaining and maintaining high professional goals unless they are focused, determined, hardworking, and gifted with charm.

Narcissism continues to be studied in a variety of contexts, including clinical psychology, organizational and social psychology, and corporate management. The exponential number of articles published since 1980 in scholarly journals on the topic of personality disorders and their impact in the workplace reveals the increasing interest and prominence of study in this field.

Table 1.1 shows the increase of research articles published in all medical journals combined from 1980 forward. In the past 36 years, articles related to the topic of narcissism increased by 75%, while those related to bullying show an increase of 1384%.

Table 1.1

Google scholar publications by search term (Search results as of September 25, 2016)

Table 1.2 demonstrates a 101,000% increase in the number of research articles during that same 36-year period through the search engine MEDLINE (Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System Online, or MEDLARS Online), a bibliographic database of life sciences and biomedical information.

Table 1.2

MEDLINE publications by search term (Search results as of October 3, 2016)

Table 1.3 shows the number of articles published in the abstract and index database ProQuest, which provides sources for researchers. From 1980 forward, the number of sources related to narcissism , specifically, has increased by 2406% and for the search term personality disorders by 3030%.

Table 1.3

ProQuest publications by search term (Search results as of September 25, 2016)

This sharp increase in scholarly articles focused on narcissism mirrors the well-documented development of this personality disorder in Western cultures. Some have labeled narcissism a modern epidemic, pointing to the rapid change in society that occurred in industrial and post-industrial times as the cause (The Conversation 2016). The past three decades have witnessed a societal shift from a commitment to the collective to a focus on the individual or the self. The self-esteem movement was an important turning point in this. It determined that self-esteem was the key to success in life. Educators and parents began telling each child how special and unique he or she is, in order to make each feel more confident. Educators and parents moved to confer self-esteem upon their children, rather than letting them achieve it through hard work.

The rise of individualism (with its focus on the self and one’s inner feelings) and the decline in social norms that accompanied the modernization of society mean that the community and the family are no longer able to provide the same support for individuals as they once did. Research has shown that being embedded in social networks—such as being actively engaged in your community and connected with friends and family—has major health benefits.

As the social fabric deteriorated, it became much harder to meet the basic need for meaningful connection. The question moved from what is best for others to what is best for me. The modernization of society seemingly prizes fame, wealth, and celebrity above all else. All this, combined with the breakdown in social ties created an empty self, shorn of social meaning.

In addition, the increased use of social media, including Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter, is further changing the way free time is spent and communication with others is pursued. Today, there are nearly 1.13 billion daily active Facebook users worldwide. Internet addiction is a new area of study in mental health, and recent cross-sectional research shows that addiction to Facebook is strongly linked to narcissistic behavior and low self-esteem (Malik and Khan 2015).

While narcissism among young people is better researched, the impact narcissistic individuals have on a corporate organization, in general, and on their colleagues, in particular, is just beginning to be explored (Judge et al. 2006). Personality disorders, of which narcissism is one, can cause serious problems in interpersonal workplace relationships, including those with subordinates, co-workers, and supervisors (Ettner et al. 2011). Given the large number of narcissists at the helms of corporations today, the challenge facing organizations is to ensure that such leaders do not self-destruct or lead the company to disaster. Maccoby (2003) suggests that employees learn how to recognize—and work around—narcissistic bosses. He also recommends that organizations leverage their narcissistic leaders’ strengths while tempering their weaknesses.

Most books on the topic of personality disorders focus on personal relationships with family and friends and offer coping mechanisms to some degree, but very few studies explore personality disorders as they impact the workplace . This book places specific emphasis on the clinical diagnosis of Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD) among those who lead people and organizations. A summary of the current research is provided, followed by a discussion of overt and covert narcissistic characteristics, what psychometric measures are currently available to assess NPD, and its link to management.

Narcissism has been identified as a hallmark of many high-achieving, ambitious people (Yudofsky 2005), suggesting that such persons achieve greater career success. Their disorder is often not perceived as problematic until affected peers or subordinates voice concerns about distressing abnormalities they experience with such leaders. Working with a narcissistic leader can be taxing even for emotionally healthy individuals. Through manipulative, exploitative, and controlling behavior, a tendency to distort reality, and demonstrations of hostility, contempt, or rage, leaders with NPD may cause significant emotional harm to others. The needs of NPD leaders may deplete the energy of colleagues who, unaware of the disorder, are also ill-equipped to address it. Extreme narcissistic traits manifest in the devaluation of others, either subtly with condescension, or by criticism. These bullying behaviors lead to progressive erosion of direct reports’ self-esteem.

A 2010 study by Hershcovis and Barling found that workplace bullying—a tactic often employed by leaders with NPD—such as belittling comments, persistent criticism of work, and withholding resources, appears to inflict more harm on employees than sexual harassment . As the authors put it, As sexual harassment becomes less acceptable in society, organizations may be more attuned to supporting victims , who may therefore find it easier to cope . In contrast, non-violent forms of workplace aggression such as incivility and bullying are not illegal, leaving victims to fend for themselves. From a total of 128 samples that were used, 46 included subjects who experienced sexual harassment, 86 experienced workplace aggression, and six experienced both. Sample sizes ranged from 1491 to 53,470 people, and participants ranged from 18 to 65 years of age.

Despite their prevalence in high-level corporate leaders, personality disorders are rarely the subject of clinical studies because of the recurrent stigma and divide between business functions and employee psychology. Also, clinical psychologists and psychiatrists are held to professional standards that make them reluctant to diagnose personality disorders without administering a formal assessment . This book is based on the descriptions of behaviors of leaders with observable NPD as perceived by their co-workers. While some narcissistic leaders have shown to be organizational saviors, their behaviors can be equally damaging to those working with them. Organizational variables and culture can be affected, including worker motivation and well-being, turnover intention, productivity, and, ultimately, the organization’s bottom line. Practical advice on how to handle these challenges is not readily available (Ettner et al. 2011).

This book strives to assist Human Resource professionals, mid- and low-level managers , and employees in achieving a broad understanding of Narcissistic Personality Disorder. The practical part of the book provides advice for those who work with leaders who demonstrate NPD characteristics in the organizational setting, with the goal of optimizing relationships and advancing their own careers .

References

Burgo, J. (2015). The narcissist you know: Defending yourself against extreme narcissists in an all-about-me age. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

Ettner, S. L., Maclean, J. C., & French, M. T. (2011). Does having a dysfunctional personality hurt your career? Axis II personality disorders and labor market outcomes. Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society, 50(1), 149–173.

Judge, T. A., Scott, B. A., & Ilies, R. (2006). Hostility, job attitudes, and workplace deviance: Test of a multilevel model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(1), 126.Crossref

Maccoby, M. (2003). The Productive Narcissist: The Promise and Peril of Visionary Leadership. New York, NY: Broadway Books.

Malik, S., & Khan, M. (2015). Impact of Facebook addiction on narcissistic behavior and self-esteem among students. Journal of Pakistan Medical Association, 65(3), 260–263.

The Conversation. (2016). Why are we becoming so narcissistic? Here is the science. Retrieved from https://​theconversation.​com/​why-are-we-becoming-so-narcissistic-heres-the-science-55773.

Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2009). The narcissism epidemic: Living in the age of entitlement. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

Yudofsky, S. C. (2005). Fatal Flaws: Navigating Destructive Relationships with People with Disorders of Personality and Character. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.

Part I

Research Background and Definitions

© The Author(s) 2018

Marie-Line GermainNarcissism at Workhttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60330-8_2

2. Definition and Description (Traits and Skills) of Narcissistic Leaders

Marie-Line Germain¹  

(1)

Western Carolina University, Asheville, NC, USA

Marie-Line Germain

Email: [e-mail]

Abstract

After describing the different clusters of personality disorders and their associated traits and behaviors, Germain details the differences between healthy and unhealthy narcissism, as well as clarifying the concepts of covert vs. overt narcissism. Definition and Description of Narcissistic Leaders then examines the role of racial and gender differences in narcissistic individuals. After presenting interpersonal challenges associated with pathological narcissism, Germain concludes by placing NPD in the workplace context. She does so by discussing how certain corporate leaders may present observable signs of NPD in the workplace, and how these signs may affect employees and organizations as a whole.

Keywords

Traits and behaviors of NPDHealthy vs. unhealthy narcissismCovert vs. overt narcissismInterpersonal challengesPathological narcissismNPD in the workplace

Background on Personality Disorders

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) offers specific diagnostic criteria to better define two broad classes of psychiatric disorders: Axis I (clinical disorders such as depression , anxiety, schizophrenia, or bipolar disorder) and Axis II (personality disorders [APA 2000]).

To be diagnosed with a personality disorder (PD), an individual must display an enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the expectations of the individual’s culture (APA 2000). Furthermore, the behavior patterns of the individual must be evident in at least two of the following mental activities:

1.

Cognition (the way in which one perceives or interprets oneself, other people, and/or events)

2.

Affectivity (the range, intensity, liability, and appropriateness of one’s emotional responses)

3.

Interpersonal functioning

4.

Impulse control

The pattern of behavior must also meet the following standards:

Be rigid and prevalent across a wide range of personal and/or social situations

Be stable and enduring, with the onset attributable to adolescence or, at the very least, early adulthood; cannot be a consequence of substance abuse , a medical condition, or another mental disorder

Results in clinically significant malaise or impairment regarding social, occupational, or other vital areas of functioning

PDs are grouped in three clusters, identified as A, B, and C:

Cluster A includes a cognitive dimension (Paris 2003) and incorporates paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders. Often, people with Cluster A disorders are regarded as being weird or eccentric, speaking or behaving in abnormal ways, exhibiting peculiar cognitions and ideas, and potentially struggling to relate to others (APA 2000).

Cluster B disorders, correlating to externalizing dimensions (Paris 2003), encompass antisocial, histrionic, borderline, and narcissistic personality disorders. In general, people who suffer from Cluster B disorders may demonstrate behavior that is overly emotional, dramatic, or erratic, and they will often act out with little regard for social norms. They struggle with impulsive behavior and are commonly hostile toward other people as well as engaging in self-abuse (APA 2000).

Cluster C disorders, correlating to internalizing dimensions (Paris 2003), include PDs that are avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive. Those who suffer from Cluster C disorders are likely to experience feelings of anxiety, extreme fear of social interactions, and generalized loss of control (APA 2000).

At some point over the course of his or her life, every individual is likely to display several of these traits; however, it is truly the severity and stability of a particular set of personality traits that define a diagnosable personality disorder.

When it comes to the role that genetics and the early childhood environment play in the development of PDs, a multitude of conflicting theories and opinions exist. However, much of literature suggests that it is truly a convergence of nature and nurture (APA 2000; Yudofsky 2005). Basically, a child may be born with certain genetic predispositions to developing a PD; however, the child’s experiences and environment could ultimately determine whether and how that disorder plays out.

For instance, children who possess specific temperaments that coincide with Cluster B disorders are more likely to develop a PD if their environment includes elements of abuse , neglect, or abandonment by their caregiver, deeming these children incapable of forming solid attachments with a parental figure (Karen 1998).

The development of emotional empathy (and related neural capacities) is often determined by factors such as temperament and attachment styles. Prior to developing language, infants read and generate facial expressions as a means of communication (Leppänen and Nelson 2009). These emotional components rely on perceptual processing and emotion-based neural circuits and are often evident at birth. These components are crucial in preparing infants to connect empathetically and participate in effective interactions with others later in life. Fostering healthy and secure emotional attachments is a crucial aspect of infant development and depends largely on the primary caregiver’s empathetic abilities since the majority of an infant’s interactions involve the primary caregiver. Children who can develop secure attachment qualities tend to develop in ways that allow them to respond well to the needs of others (Mikulincer et al. 2003). Ronningstam (1998) deepens this understanding by stating, The combination of a doting but emotionally depriving parent who delivers the message of specialness along with unrealistic expectations and a second non-doting parent who is absent, critical, entitled, cold, disengaging, or rejecting sets the stage for narcissistic personality disorder (p. 247).

Children who have been abandoned or suffer from abandonment issues are highly likely to develop a personality disorder; they are reported to be one of the most common groups of people who will develop narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) (Kernberg 1970; Rinsley 1967). Furthermore, children who were raised by abusive parents who lacked parental warmth and struggled with perspective talking skills reported low levels of self-confidence and high frequency of narcissistic traits (Wiehe 2003).

Abundant research and literature support the conclusion that individuals who develop personality disorders find it incredibly difficult to change and are inherently challenging to treat, mostly because they develop such disorders early in life and experience lasting patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about oneself and the environment. These enduring patterns of inner experiences and behavior can lead to clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other areas of functioning (APA 2000). Whereas Axis I disorders (such as depression and anxiety) are typically confined to a specific time period, personality disorders (Axis II) are generally expected to maintain a lifelong diagnosis. Although events occurring in an individual’s life may exacerbate behaviors typical of a personality disorder (e.g., divorce might trigger suicidal thoughts in a person plagued with borderline personality disorder), the characteristics of the disorder are inherently enduring.

Individuals diagnosed with personality disorders are frequently linked to low levels of emotional and social functioning, with little improvement shown in the areas of psychosocial functioning, even over time (Skodol