Performance of Indigenous Animal Genetic Resources in Zimbabwe and Their Potential Contribution to the Livestock Sector

By Patrick H R Tawonezvi, Kennedy Dzama and Carrol T Khombe

Indigenous animal genetic resources are predominant in all the livestock species that are used or may be used for food and agriculture in Zimbabwe. However, their development and utilisation have received much less attention than exotic genetic resources, yet indigenous livestock are more adapted to the production environment in the country and, consequently, are more productive.

This book highlights the issues and the leading role that indigenous breeds can play in increasing the performance and productivity in the livestock sector, and in enhancing household and national food and nutritional security.
We hope the book will be of use to students, academics, practitioners, policy makers, development partners and other stakeholders interested in livestock development in Zimbabwe.

"The authors have ably used their many years of experience to inform the reader why indigenous animal genetic resources should be utilised commercially and conserved in view of their performance and the changing production environment being fuelled by climate change. The book will be an essential reference for all players in the livestock value chains."
- Prof Ntombizakhe Mpofu-Mlilo (Expert in animal breeding and genetics / formally Vice Chancellor Gwanda State University)

"This is a well conceptualised and written book, contributing significantly to expand our knowledge of the conservation and utilisation of indigenous livestock breeds for increased production efficiency to enhance food and nutrition security."
- Prof Frans Swanepoel (Director: International Strategic Partnerships, Professor: Agricultural Transformation in Africa (ATA), Director: Food Systems Research Network for Africa (FSNet-Net), Centre for Advancement of Scholarship, University of Pretoria)

"This is an extremely useful publication. It highlights the measurable but often neglected advantages of indigenous breeds and goes a long way in showcasing the unique attributes of indigenous animal genetic resources. The authors have provided the scientific evidence necessary for those who can take action to do so."
- Dr Edward Nengomasha (Livestock expert African Union InterAfrican Bureau for Animal Resources)

• Language: English
• Publisher: Patrick H R Tawonezvi
• Release date: Jan 27, 2022
• ISBN: 9781005654009

Book preview

Performance of Indigenous Animal

Genetic Resources in Zimbabwe

and Their Potential Contribution

to the Livestock Sector

Patrick H R Tawonezvi, Kennedy Dzama and Carrol T Khombe

Copyright © 2021 Patrick H R Tawonezvi, Kennedy Dzama and Carrol T Khombe

Published by Patrick H R Tawonezvi, Kennedy Dzama and Carrol T Khombe publishing at Smashwords

First edition 2021

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage or retrieval system without permission from the copyright holder.

The Author has made every effort to trace and acknowledge sources/resources/individuals. In the event that any images/information have been incorrectly attributed or credited, the Author will be pleased to rectify these omissions at the earliest opportunity.

Published by Patrick H R Tawonezvi, Kennedy Dzama and Carrol T Khombe

using Reach Publishers’ services,

P O Box 1384, Wandsbeck, South Africa, 3631

Cover designed by Reach Publishers

Website: www.reachpublishers.co.za

E-mail: [e-mail]

Table of Contents

List of Tables

Table of Figures

List of Boxes

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

Preface

Acknowledgements

About the Authors

1. Introduction

2. Livestock Breed Resources in Zimbabwe

2.1 Cattle breed resources

2.1.1 Indigenous cattle breeds

2.1.1.1 The Mashona cattle breed

2.1.1.2 The Nguni cattle breed

2.1.1.3 The Tuli cattle breed

2.2 Goat breed resources

2.2.1 Indigenous goat breeds

2.2.1.1 The Mashona goat breed

2.2.1.2 The Matabele goat breed

2.3 Sheep breed resources

2.3.1 The indigenous Sabi sheep breed

2.4 Pig breed resources

2.4.1 The indigenous Mukota pig breed

2.5 Poultry genetic resources

2.5.1 Indigenous chicken types

2.5.1.1 Red and Brown chickens

2.5.1.2 Naked Neck chickens

2.5.1.3 Speckled chickens

2.5.1.4 Plain White chickens

2.5.1.5 Black Australorp chickens

2.5.1.6 Barred Rock chickens

2.5.1.7 Rumpless chickens

2.5.1.8 Feathery Legged chickens

2.6 Other indigenous animal genetic resources

2.7 Adaptability of indigenous livestock

2.8 The need to characterise indigenous AnGR

3. Comparative Performance of Indigenous and Exotic Breeds

3.1 Comparative performance of indigenous and exotic beef cattle

3.1.1 Cow-calf production phase

3.1.2 Postweaning production phase

3.1.2.1 Performance in feedlot

3.1.2.2 Performance on veld grazing

3.1.2.3 Meat quality characteristics

3.1.2.4 Problems with the current beef carcass classification and grading system

3.1.2.5 Problems with the current system of grading live cattle

3.2 Comparative performance of indigenous and exotic goats and sheep

3.2.1 Goat breed comparisons

3.2.2 Sheep breed comparisons

3.2.3 Comparison of indigenous goats and sheep

3.3 Comparative performance of indigenous and exotic pigs

3.3.1 Weaner production phase

3.3.2 Postweaning phase

3.4 Comparative performance of indigenous and exotic poultry

4. Role of Indigenous Breeds in Crossbreeding Systems

4.1 Benefiting from heterosis

4.2 Benefiting from complementarity between breeds

4.3 Crossbreeding systems

4.3.1 Rotational crossbreeding

4.3.2 Composite breeds

4.3.3 Terminal crossbreeding systems

4.3.4 Comparison of crossbreeding systems

4.3.5 Choice of breeds and crossbreeding in different production systems

4.4 Upgrading indigenous cattle for milk production

4.5 Crossbreeding with selection

5. Genetic Improvement Within Indigenous Breeds

5.1 Development of the national on-farm performance testing schemes

5.1.1 On-farm performance testing of beef cattle

5.1.2 On-farm performance testing of pigs

5.2 Central performance testing schemes

5.2.1 Central performance testing of Mashona bulls

5.2.2 Central performance testing of pigs

5.3 Selection for fertility

5.4 Elements for developing more effective genetic improvement programmes

5.4.1 Estimation of genetic parameters for performance traits

5.4.2 Selection for feed conversion efficiency uncorrelated with mature size

5.4.3 Genetic improvement in smallholder herds and flocks

5.4.3.1 Community Based Breeding Programmes

5.4.3.2 Nucleus breeding schemes

5.4.3.3 Some experiences and lessons with a group breeding scheme in Mashona cattle

6. Conservation And Commercial Utilisation Of Indigenous Livestock

6.1 Factors limiting conservation and commercial utilisation of indigenous AnGR

6.1.1 Lack of awareness

6.1.2 Livestock development policy focussed on the use of exotic breeds

6.1.3 Poorly informed restocking programmes

6.1.4 Inappropriate live and carcass grading and pricing systems

6.1.5 Limited evaluation and characterisation of indigenous AnGR

6.1.6 Lack of adequate number of trained animal breeders

6.1.7 Inadequate funding of AnGR research and development

6.1.8 Conservation limited to a few herds and flocks

6.1.9 Absence of a national policy and strategies on farm animal genetic resources

6.2 Towards sustainable conservation and utilisation of indigenous AnGR

6.2.1 GPA Strategic Priority Area 1: Characterisation of animal genetic resources, inventory and monitoring of trends and associated risks

6.2.2 GPA Strategic Priority Area 2: Sustainable use and development

6.2.3 GPA Strategic Priority Area 3: Conservation

6.2.4 GPA Strategic Priority Area 4: Policies, institutions and capacity building

6.3 Progress towards development of a national strategy on AnGR

7. Synthesis

7.1 Performance of indigenous breeds

7.1.1 Potential role of indigenous livestock in mitigating the effects of climate change

7.2 Role of exotic breeds

7.3 Crossbreeding systems

7.4 Genetic improvement within indigenous breeds

7.5 The way forward

References

List of Tables

Table 1.1: Estimated beef production from cattle reared in smallholder and large-scale farming sectors

Table 2.1: Cattle breeds in Zimbabwe

Table 2.2: Comparative adaptability . of beef cattle breeds

Table 3.1: Weaner production from indigenous and exotic beef breeds in Zimbabwe

Table 3.2: Postweaning growth and carcass yield of progeny of indigenous and exotic cow breeds

Table 3.3: Postweaning growth, feedlot performance and carcass characteristics of steers offered 1,140 kg of feed ad libitum before slaughter

Table 3.4: Feedlot performance and carcass characteristics of Mashona, Angus x Tuli and Hereford steers fed for 90 days

Table 3.5: Warner-Bratzler shear force measurements of meat tenderness of Sanga and exotic breeds finished in feedlot

Table 3.6: Beef carcass lengths and carcass side weights for different Fleshing Index classes

Table 3.7: Carcass weight to length ratios for different fleshing classes, derived from Table 3.6

Table 3.8: Live animal grades used at public auctions in communal areas

Table 3.9: Weaner production of indigenous and exotic Boer goats in Zimbabwe and Botswana

Table 3.10: Weaner production of Sabi, Dorper and Mutton Merino sheep

Table 3.11: Pre- and post-weaning performance of Sabi and Mutton Merino sheep

Table 3.12: Pre- and post-weaning performance of Matabele goats and Sabi sheep

Table 3.13: Weaner production of Mukota sows mated to Mukota and Large White boars

Table 3.14: Sire breed means for litter weight, average piglet weight at weaning in a low-input production system, by parity

Table 3.15: Postweaning performance and carcass characteristics of Mukota, Large White and Large White x Mukota crossbred pigs

Table 3.16: Growth, feed intake and carcass characteristics of village and hybrid chickens fed commercial poultry diets ad libitum over a period of 56 days

Table 4.1: Individual and maternal heterosis estimates in Sabi x Mutton Merino crossbred sheep

Table 4.2: Maternal heterosis estimates in beef cattle

Table 4.3: Estimates of individual heterosis for postweaning traits in one-way Large White x Mukota crossbred pigs

Table 4.4: Breed composition and retained heterosis in a 2-breed rotationally crossbred dams involving purebred sires, by generation

Table 4.5: Comparison of crossbreeding systems

Table 4.6: Rationale for choice of breed and crossbreeding systems for intensive or extensive beef production

Table 4.7: Milk production of Mashona cattle and its crosses with Holstein-Friesian and Jersey breeds under semi-arid grazing at Makoholi

Table 5.1: Estimates of heritability for direct (h²a) and maternal (h²m) effects, correlation between direct and maternal genetic effects (ram) and phenotypic variance (σ²p) for live weight of Mashona, Nguni and Tuli cattle reared on range

Table 5.2: Estimates of heritability for direct (h²a) and maternal (m) effects, correlation between direct and maternal genetic effects (ram), proportion of variance for common environmental litter effects (l²) and phenotypic variance (σp) for birth weight and weaning weight of indigenous goats and sheep reared on range

Table 5.3: Estimates of heritability for direct (h²a) and maternal (h²m) effects, correlation between direct and maternal genetic effects (ram), proportion of variance for common environmental litter effects (l²) and phenotypic variance (σp) for traits in Mukota pigs

Table 5.4: Key features for planning Community Based Breeding Programmes

Table 6.1: Summary of indicative national strategic priorities and actions on AnGR in Zimbabwe

Table 7.1: Estimated productive superiority of indigenous over exotic breeds in Zimbabwe

Table 7.2: Main sources of greenhouse gases (GHG) emitted in livestock production systems

Table of Figures

Figure 3.1: Illustration of the effect of finishing breeds of different mature size at the same level of maturity

Figure 3.2: Illustration of the effect of finishing breeds of different mature size at the same slaughter weight

Figure 3.3: Illustration of the effect of finishing breeds of different mature size at the same age

Figure 4.1: Structure of a 2-breed rotational crossbreeding system

Figure 4.2: Structure of a 3-breed rotational crossbreeding system

Figure 4.3: Structure of a 2-breed terminal crossbreeding system

Figure 4.4: Structure of a 3-breed terminal crossbreeding system

Figure 4.5: Illustration of the influence of fertility on realised heterosis in beef cattle crossbreeding systems

Figure 4.6: Illustration of the effect of combining crossbreeding with selection on production

Figure 5.1: Illustration of actual (square dots) and predicted (trend line) feed intake for a series of animals

Figure 5.2: Structure of a two-tier nucleus breeding scheme

Figure 5.3: Structure of a three-tier open nucleus breeding scheme

List of Boxes

Box 3.1: Fleshing Index as a measure of beef carcass conformation is biased against small breeds

Box 3.2: Growth in demand and in commercial production of indigenous chickens

Box 4.1: Crossbreds did not create more net benefits than indigenous goats

Box 7.1: Indigenous livestock breeds are preferred over exotics

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

ADG Average daily liveweight gain

AGRITEX Department of Agriculture, Technical and Extension Services

AI Artificial Insemination

AnGR Animal Genetic Resources

APRU Animal Production Research Unit, Botswana Ministry of Agriculture

AU-IBAR African Union Inter-African Bureau on Animal Resources

BLUP Best Linear Unbiased Prediction

BPTS Beef Performance Testing Scheme

CBBP Community Based Breeding Programme

CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research

DAD-IS Domestic Animal Diversity – Information System

DDP Dairy Development Programme

DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid

DR&SS Department of Research and Specialist Services

EBV Estimated Breeding Value

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FAQ Fair Average Quality

FCE Feed conversion efficiency

FCR Feed conversion ratio

FMD Foot and Mouth Disease

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GHG Greenhouse gas

GPA Global Plan of Action on animal genetic resource

LIT Livestock Identification Trust

LITS Livestock Identification and Traceability System

LU Livestock Unit (500 kg live weight)

MAWCRR Ministry of Agriculture, Water, Climate and Rural Resettlement

MOET Multiple Ovulation and Embryo Transfer

NAC National Advisory Committee

NFP National Focal Point

NGO Non-Governmental Organisation

NSAP National Strategy and Action Plan

OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development

ONBS Open Nucleus Breeding Scheme

RDC Rural District Council

REC Regional Economic Community

RFI Residual feed intake

SADC Southern African Development Community

SNV Netherlands Development Agency

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

USA United States of America

ZIMSTAT Zimbabwe National Statistical Agency

Preface

Zimbabwe is endowed with a wide variety of animal genetic resources that are used or may be used for food and agriculture, with cattle, goats, sheep, pigs and poultry being the main livestock species. Several breeds both indigenous and exotic can be found within these species with indigenous breeds being numerically the predominant livestock. Indigenous breeds have however received much less attention in commercial livestock production than exotic breeds, yet indigenous breeds are more adapted and are therefore generally more productive than the exotics and crossbreds in most production systems in the country. Their utilisation as dam lines in commercial production offers greater promise for sustainable development and increased productivity of the country’s livestock sub-sector, especially under free range grazing systems. Indigenous livestock will become even more important in the future as farmers and breeders face the challenge of adapting their animals to increasing production costs (high costs of cereals and legumes) and increased occurrence of environmental hazards, including adaptation to climate change.

The objectives of this book are three-fold. The first objective is to review and consolidate the research work undertaken in Zimbabwe and demonstrate the production potential of indigenous compared with exotic livestock breeds and how this potential can be exploited to enhance livestock productivity as well as food and nutrition security in the country. We have observed that the information from breed evaluations undertaken in Zimbabwe since the 1960s has largely remained unavailable to relevant players in the livestock value chains. Consequently, the recommendations in those research studies have largely not been adopted, hence the book will be a source of reference for stakeholders. The second objective is to provide a framework for the development of a comprehensive national breeding policy, strategy and institutional arrangements that would underpin the development and appropriate utilisation of the animal genetic resources in the country. The framework is also expected to assist the country in contributing to the Global Plan of Action on animal genetic resources. The third objective is to advocate for the development, conservation and commercial utilisation of indigenous breeds, given their comparative advantages over the exotic breeds. This should further contribute to increased production and productivity of the livestock sub-sector, thus contributing to increased food and nutrition security at both rural household and national levels.

The target audience of this book is intended to be researchers and extension agents, policy makers, development partners and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) who are all struggling in different, sometimes conflicting, ways to contribute towards sustainable livestock production and productivity to enhance food and nutritional security and livelihoods in the country. The second audience is animal science students in agricultural colleges and universities in Zimbabwe and Southern Africa. The third audience is students, research and extension institutions, policy makers, development partners and NGOs in the rest of Africa and overseas.

Acknowledgements

This book is a product of a review of the findings from research work on the productive performance of Zimbabwe’s indigenous livestock breeds. Some of these breeds are transboundary. We have therefore included their comparative performance in the local environment and elsewhere where the breeds have been evaluated against other breeds. The research work on indigenous ruminant livestock in Zimbabwe was conducted at the four livestock research institutes within the Department of Research and Specialist Services, namely, Matopos Research Institute, Grasslands Research Institute, Henderson Research Institute and Makoholi Research Institute. The research work on pigs was conducted by the University of Zimbabwe and the Pig Industry Board. Lupane State University provided a detailed description of the various strains of village chickens in the country. We are privileged to have had access to this wealth of both published and unpublished information and to have been involved in some of the research work. We are indebted to all the scientists who conducted the breed evaluations at various times over the years.

We are grateful to Prof Ntombizakhe Mpofu-Mlilo, Prof Frans Swanepoel and Dr Edward Nengomasha for reviewing the manuscript and making valuable observations and comments. We thank Dr Kwaku Agyemang for proof-reading the manuscript.

About the Authors