Religion Without Boundaries: Spirituality and Humanity

By Shawn Paul

All major organized religions are confined to rules and regulations promulgated since ancient times, but with the passage of time, those writings became outdated in contemporary society.
Even so, religious rules and regulations remained fixed. As a result, spirituality emerged as a driving force that goes beyond the boundaries of traditional religion.
In this book, the author examines how religions have been stifled by their inability to adapt to recent times. He asserts that religion is based on myths, folklore, and supernatural miracles. Spirituality, however, is more about an inner quest.
Spirituality emphasizes compassion, patience, harmony, and concern for others. Humanity is the active part of spirituality when one’s compassion toward others translates into a kind concern to do well.
To enhance and enrich human life, the author highlights the need to fight hunger and poverty, to establish peace, and to protect the environment and natural resources.
Discover practical aspects of spirituality and humanity that will help us achieve a more meaningful existence with the powerful insights in Religion without Boundaries.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Archway Publishing
• Release date: Feb 28, 2022
• ISBN: 9781665718882

Shawn Paul

Shawn Paul has practiced psychotherapy for over thirty years and holds MS degrees in chemistry, fuel science, and clinical psychology. He is deeply interested in religions, spirituality, and humanity and their role in meaningful existence. Paul is also the author of Religion without Boundaries.

Book preview

RELIGION

without

BOUNDARIES

SPIRITUALITY AND HUMANITY

SHAWN PAUL

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Copyright © 2022 Shawn Paul.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced by any means, graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping or by any information storage retrieval system without the written permission of the author except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews.

This book is a work of non-fiction. Unless otherwise noted, the author and the publisher make no explicit guarantees as to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and in some cases, names of people and places have been altered to protect their privacy.

Archway Publishing

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Bloomington, IN 47403

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Because of the dynamic nature of the Internet, any web addresses or links contained in this book may have changed since publication and may no longer be valid. The views expressed in this work are solely those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher, and the publisher hereby disclaims any responsibility for them.

Any people depicted in stock imagery provided by Getty Images are models, and such images are being used for illustrative purposes only.

Certain stock imagery © Getty Images.

Scripture taken from the King James Version of the Bible.

Scripture marked (ASV) taken from the American Standard Version of the Bible.

ISBN: 978-1-6657-1887-5 (sc)

ISBN: 978-1-6657-1889-9 (hc)

ISBN: 978-1-6657-1888-2 (e)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2022902887

Archway Publishing rev. date: 02/25/2022

CONTENTS

List of Abbreviations

Preface

Section 1 Evolution of Religion

Hinduism

1. Introduction

History of Hinduism

Time Line

2. Hindu Doctrines and Ethics

3. Sacred Scriptures

4. Hindu Deities and Symbols

5. Ritual Worships, Traditions, and Temple

Worship of God through Images

Hindu Prayers

6. Spiritual Practitioner – Guru-Disciple Relationship

7. Real Guru vs. Controversial Gurus

8. Myths vs. Reality

9. Bhagavad Gita (The Holy Gita)

10. Critical Review and Commentary

Buddhism

1. Introduction

2. Teachings of Buddha

Four Noble Truths

Noble Eightfold Path

Middle Way

3. Two Kinds of Truth

4. The Three Dharma Seals

5. Buddha Ethics

6. Other Basic Buddhist Teachings

7. The Way of Practical Attainment

8. Buddhist Texts

9. History of Buddhism

10. Critical Review and Commentary

Section 2 Abrahamic Religions

Judaism

1. Introduction

2. Characteristics and Core Tenets of Jewish Faith

3. Understanding Jewish Rituals

4. Ten Commandments

5. Old Testament Time Line

6. Five Books of Moses: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy

7. Persecution of Jews

8. Christianity and Judaism

9. Islam and Judaism

10. Critical Review and Commentary

Christianity

1. Jesus Christ in the New Testament

2. Miracles of Jesus

3. The Historical Jesus

4. The Apostles

5. Christianity – History, Beliefs, Traditions, and Teachings

6. Christian Denominations

7. Televangelism

8. Christian-Jewish Relations

9. New Testament

10. Critical Review and Commentary

Islam

1. Introduction

2. Prophet Muhammad and Islam

Prophet Muhammad’s Family Life

Criticism of the Prophet Muhammad and His Successors

3. The Articles and Five Pillars of Islam

Articles of Islam

Five Pillars of Islam

4. Common Traditions and Social Customs of Islam

Getting Married and the Status of Women

Divorce in Islam and Other Islamic Traditions

Eating and drinking in Islam

Muslim Holidays, Holy Sites and Symbols in Islam

Peace, Tolerance and Violence in Islam

5. Practices of Sunnis and Shias

6. Hadith

7. Sharia

8. Quran Suras and Interpretation

9. Critical Review and Commentary

10. Comparison between Christianity, Judaism and Islam

Section 3 Spirituality, Humanism, Humanity/Humanitarianism

Spirituality

1. Introduction

2. Defining Spirituality

3. Other Concepts Related to Spirituality

4. Scientific View of Spirituality

5. Comparing/Contrasting Religion vs. Spirituality

6. Development of the Meaning of Spirituality

7. Contemporary Spirituality

8. Spiritual Practices

9. Scientific Research

10. Summary and Conclusion

Humanism

1. Introduction

2. Humanism Characteristics/Aspirations

3. Humanism Background

4. Humanist Perspective in Ancient Times

5. Prejudice Facing Humanism

6. A Humanistic Approach to Traditional Religions

7. International Humanism

8. Core Humanism Issues

9. Ten Commitments

10. Summary and Conclusions

Humanity/Humanitarianism

1. Introduction

2. Defining Humanitarianism / Humanity Quotes

3. Brief History of Humanitarianism

4. Core Humanitarian Principles

5. Emergency Relief

6. Hunger, Malnutrition, and Daily Struggles in Third World Countries

7. Humanitarian Aid Organizations

8. Great Humanitarians/Humanitarian Projects

9. Ten Contemporary Guiding Principles of Humanity (thoughtfully proposed by this author)

10. Summary and Conclusion

Section 4 Final Summary and Conclusions

Summary of Ten Main Themes in Major Religions

1. Concept of Creation/Evolution

2. Conceptions of God/Demigods/Prophets (Connection with the Divine)

3. Concept of Idolatry/Images

4. Concept of Soul; Consciousness, Religious Beliefs, and Enlightenment

5. Unique Concepts and Rituals in Religions

6. Concepts of Heaven, Hell, Predestination, and Reincarnation

7. Sacred Texts in Religions

8. Status of Women in Religions

9. Holy and Unholy Men in Major Religions

10. Myths, Controversies, and Confabulations in Religions

Conclusions

Epilogue

Glossary

Notes

Dedicated to my spiritual god mother,

my mother & Mother Teresa

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Abbreviations

AAH – Action against Hunger

AD – (Anno Domini) After Christ, better known as CE (Common Era)

BAPS – Bochasanwasi Akshar Puroshottam Sanstha (Hindu religious nonprofit charity organization)

BC – Before Christ, better known as BCE (before Common Era)

BCE – Before Common Era (= BC)

BS – Belief System

BBS – Blind Belief System

DBS – Delusional Belief System (terminology coined by this author)

CARE – Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere

CE – Common Era (= AD)

ERC – Emergency Relief Coordinator

IASC – Inter Agency Standing Committee

ICRC – International Committee of Red Cross

IDP – Internally Displaced Person

IFRC – International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

NGHAs – Non-Government Humanitarian Agencies

NGO – Non-Government Organization

OXFAM – Oxford Committee for Famine Relief

RC – Red Cross

SCHR – Steering Committee for Humanitarian Response

UNICEF – United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund

UNHCR – United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

WFP – World Food Program

WHO – World Health Organization

PREFACE

O nce I had the opportunity to take my young daughter to a Hindu temple, where there were many idols of various demigods. Having glanced at the deity Durga, she curiously inquired why the goddess has eight arms. To answer her question, I explained to her that different arms pertain to different functions the goddess Durga performs. When I came home, I started questioning myself the validity of having more than two arms in any individual. Then I realized that Hindu religion is full of mysticism and symbolism, such as the demigod Ganesh having an elephant head, which had been created, and the monkey-faced demigod Hanuman performing miracles like lifting a mountain. These peculiar characterizations of Hindu deities spurred me into an in-depth study of the Hindu religion. I extended my studies into other major religions, namely Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Finally, I realized that all religious literature is derived from old traditions and customs dating to ancient times, featuring supernatural phenomena and metaphysical assumptions which defy human logic and reasoning but are nonetheless believed blindly by religious people across the globe.

The title of this book, Religion without Boundaries, is carefully chosen to reflect this author’s assertion that all traditional organized religions are confined to rules and regulations promulgated since ancient times and remain fixed. Those instructions and guidelines were attributed to the prophets, as in Abrahamic religions, or to demigods, as in Hinduism, to authenticate the religion. The major religions are based on myths, supernatural phenomena, metaphysical concepts, rituals, and questionable sacred texts. This assertion is based on my reading of religious literature, especially holy books, as well as my life experiences of observing rituals at the sacred places and the conduct of religious people in society. With the passage of time, society has changed, science has evolved and new awareness has emerged, but the rules and regulations and holy books never changed. So organized religions always remained within confined boundaries.

In my opinion, all the traditional religions are based on mythical folk stories and miracles which defy science and logic. Each religion emphasizes that it offers the only way to salvation. In Hinduism, it is the God Vishnu; in Judaism it is Yahweh; in Christianity it is the trinity concept of God; in Islam it is Allah. Instead of considering different gods in each religion, I have considered one universal God. God is thus defined as totality of nature having no human form. God created the world through evolution and then let nature take it over. The famous Greek philosopher and generative Western thinker Aristotle stated that morality, virtues, and goodness can be derived without appealing to supernatural forces and argued that men create God in their own image (not the other way around).

The many problems of organized religions pointed out by psychologist Stephen Uhl, a former priest, spring from the necessary stance in supernatural religion that faith must override or control one’s reason. For the believer, logic is secondary to faith. That subjecting of humankind’s highest natural power to faith results in interfaith terrorism and the repression of free inquiry. For example, it is well established that human evolution is billions of years old and gradually evolved through natural selection, but Abrahamic religion, whether it is Judaism, Christianity, or Islam, still believe in the unscientific theory of Adam and Eve. Eve is supposed to have been created out of the rib of a man, a male chauvinistic view. Somehow this illogical concept is still believed by millions of Christians, who still insist on teaching creation and oppose the well-established scientific theory of evolution.

These kinds of folk concepts and stories are present in every religion. In Hindu religion, it is believed that one of the demigods, Ganesh, was created from the sweat of the goddess Parvati (wife of Lord Shiva). When Lord Shiva returned from a long journey and strode toward home, he found his way blocked by an unknown young man Ganesh. Shiva was furious, and a battle began. Lord Shiva cut off Ganesh’s head, not realizing that Ganesh was their son created by Parvati in his absence. When Parvati found out, she insisted that Ganesh be revived. Then Lord Shiva gave Ganesh an elephant head as a replacement, the only suitable head available at that time. Lord Ganesh is worshipped in all Hindu temples. As I discussed this story once with a Hindu friend who holds a PhD, he insisted that it was a true happening, but after some discussion, he reluctantly agreed that there is no logic to the story.

Millions of Hindus believe in old folk stories related in Hinduism’s sacred Puranic literature, and these mythical concepts are so well ingrained in people’s minds that they cannot be shaken. The serious problem with major religions, whether Hinduism, Christianity, or Islam, is that too much focus is on creeds, rituals, prayers, and attendance at religious services in temples, churches, or mosques, so that deed takes second place to creed. Millions of people in Asia and Africa visit religious sacred places regularly, yet corruption is rampant in third world countries, committed even by those who follow religious rituals and traditions regularly. However, creed does not necessarily translate into good deeds. That is why there is a moral decay, interfaith conflicts, and violence are found even at holy places. In Western society, where Christians dominate, there is lot of hypocrisy, especially among Christian televangelists and conservative Christians who care for the rights of the unborn but neglect the plight of millions of living children who die of starvation and malnutrition each year. Many religious people are conscious of their moral responsibility to the underprivileged and to needy children and do their part, but their number is relatively very small.

Millions of Hindus such as my wife have deep faith in traditional organized Hindu religion, which includes idol worship, Puranic folk stories, and supernatural occurrences described in holy Hindu books. These deeply held beliefs persist regardless of the questionable validity of miracles described in the Hindu religion. This kind of blind faith is found among adherents of every major religion. Further, many religious people feel that their traditional faith has a strong positive influence in their life. There are religious people who in their own way are contributing in a meaningful way for the betterment of the society. In fact, one aspect of every religion is that it calls for humility and compassion.

This book is not directed toward those religious people who have been positively impacted by their faith. This book is primarily directed toward those who are disenchanted with old religious traditions and as a result have become atheists, agnostics, or searchers for an alternative approach to fill a void in their spiritual life. Pew research findings in 2017 reported that 27 percent of Americans consider themselves spiritual but not religious; another 18 percent are neither spiritual nor religious. According to the recent Pew research, nonreligious people in general—those unaffiliated with any traditional organized religion—constitute 1.1 billion, or 16.5 percent of the global population. Nonreligious is the third largest category behind adherents of Christianity and Islam.

To address the need of this large group, dissatisfied with the lack of reasoning and logic in religion, humanism emerged as an alternative to theism. Humanism is based on critical thinking and evidence rather than acceptance of dogmas or superstition. It views humans as solely responsible for promoting and developing people’s individual concern for the world. In humanism being good without god is an accepted way of life. Due to humanism’s insistence on the good without god slogan, many people, including myself, are reluctant to embrace humanism wholeheartedly.

Organized religion is based on faith, while humanism is based on science. To bridge the gap between faith and science is not an easy task. However, spirituality has emerged as the only rational alternative to address the ethical issues of contemporary society. Spirituality is the true essence of any religion connected with the consciousness, morality, and integrity of humankind. It is higher form of human awareness of goodness, kindness, and caring concern for others. It is the foundation of humanity. Spirituality goes beyond boundaries of all religions.

Spirituality may refer to any kind of meaningful activity, a sacred dimension, or the deepest values and meaning by which people live. Secular spirituality emphasizes humanistic ideas of moral character and qualities such as compassion, patience, harmony, and concern for others. The individual belief in an organized religion may be very spiritual, but spirituality does not always lead the individual to a traditional organized religious system. That is why many people, such as Deepak Chopra and Bill Gates, describe themselves as spiritual, not religious. Similarly, it is possible to be religious without having a deep spiritual connection with one’s faith. One of the biggest differences between religion and spirituality is that religion is based on the past while spirituality tends to be more about individual development in the present.

Humanitarianism is the active part of spirituality when one’s own consciousness and compassion toward other human beings translate into kind concern for others and the decision to do good in society. Humanity aids and encourages self-reflection, which in turn develops personal consciousness or an active sense of civic duty. In humanitarianism, deeds before creed is the motto applied.

Three major humanitarian projects have been identified which are close to this author’s heart. First is the problem of hunger and poverty in children, resulting in the loss of millions of children’s lives each year. There is a need for heightened awareness among the public to support efforts to combat hunger and provide basic necessities to all impoverished children in the world. The second project is to establish peace in the planet. That can be achieved if all nations and religions with deep spiritual and humanitarian values join hands with international peace efforts; condemn religious hatred, bigotry, and violence; and promote peace, harmony, and peaceful coexistence. The broader approach to promote humanity in this regard is to promote the concept of syncretism through interfaith dialogue in order to develop common bonds to promote peace.

Last but not least is the concern and need to educate the public about our environment and natural resources. Global warming is a real concern, as we have seen forest fires in 2020 in Australia wiping out more than a billion animals, including native koalas and kangaroos. I have been personally touched by the loss of millions of gentle koalas as I had the opportunity to have close encounter with koalas during my family visit to Sydney, Australia. I strongly support wildlife funds, as we have seen significant declines in wildlife. We need to preserve rain forests. The good Lord has given us this planet and provided us resources to utilize wisely so that not only the current generations but future generations will have enough to sustain themselves and survive in peace and prosperity. In this regard, I have proposed ten guiding principles to improve life and contribute to the betterment of our lives in this planet.

The world is full of positive and negative forces. Let us all strive toward positive and spiritual aspects of our lives and follow our deepest values, convictions, and commitments toward the development of all human beings through empathy, compassion, and concern for the well-being of all our fellow humans. Further, let us aspire to develop a spirit of world citizenship through humanist ideas of love, compassion, patience, tolerance, forgiveness, contentment, responsibility, harmony, and genuine concern for our fellow human beings. This process will help us all develop inner peace and form a foundation of a blissful life. This book is written in the hope that it will inspire all toward the betterment of humankind.

This book is divided into four sections. The first section consists of introduction and the world’s oldest religion, Hinduism, and its offshoot Buddhism. The second section consists of the Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. All the traditional religious concepts, traditions, and features are critiqued from a logical and scientific point of view. Blind beliefs and supernatural occurrences have been critiqued under my comments.

The third section discusses the alternative approaches to traditional organized religions. Throughout this book, spirituality is emphasized as it is the true essence of any religion, connected with consciousness, morality, empathy, and compassion. Since humanity as described as an active agent of spirituality translated into kind concern for others and to do good in the society, I consider that to be most significant part of the book.

In the last section of the book, all major religions are compared and contrasted on ten major aspects of religious life, and a final summary and epilogue draws conclusions. Important comments in this manuscript have been highlighted through italic type and repeated at times to emphasize their significance. I hope this book will enlighten the minds of readers and will contribute toward mutual concerns for our fellow human beings resulting in peaceful coexistence.

I thankfully acknowledge the constructive suggestions of Dr. Cheryl Hamel and Dr. Cyrus Zargar. Further, the valuable input of Dr. Barbara Mara is greatly appreciated. The author has relied broadly on published literature and online sources as stated in the notes at the end of the manuscript.

SECTION 1

Evolution of Religion

M any stories have been put forward to account for the origins of humans. For Greeks, humans were created by Prometheus. Yahweh is credited with the creation of a man in the Abrahamic faiths, while according to ancient Egyptians, human origins emerged from an infinite sea of lifelessness. In Hindu mythology, Brahma is credited with creation of the first man on earth. There are numerous such stories. Although they are intriguing, none of them is backed by scientific research.

The big bang theory of universal origins begins with a single infinitely dense and infinitely hot point. From this single point, there was a large explosion from which condensed quarks and electrons—the building blocks of matter. Over the next 13.8 billion years, the universe has been expanding and cooling. Quarks united to form neutrons and protons. Finally, they gathered together into clouds of gas, which, with the help of gravity, clustered together to form stars and galaxies.

The earth formed 4.5 billion years ago near a star which we call Sun, in a galaxy that we have named the Milky Way. This planet orbited the sun for a billion years before life, in the form of prokaryotes or simple cells, emerged. After approximately 2.5 billion years, these simple cells evolved into multicellular structures, which in turn had evolved into simple organisms a half billion years later. The most recent fossils have brought scientists close to the time when humans first walked upright, splitting off from chimpanzees. It happened about six million years ago. Human ancestry is traced to a female hominid named Lucy about three million years ago.

First there was Homo habilis about two million years ago. Then came Homo erectus or upright man, the ancient ancestor of modern humans, about one million years ago. Finally, Homo-sapiens (modern humans) appeared about 200,000 years ago. The first humans arose in Africa. From there, humans moved to Asia and Europe.

Primitive religion known as animism consisted of a belief in unseen spirits. The ancient religion laced with symbols integrated into rituals where early humans celebrated and coaxed the powers about them. There might be a spirit who produced an egg, out of which other beings could come. It is plausible to think that prehistoric men and women in some groups combined the idea of monotheism—belief in a higher God—along with the idea of many more or less personalized powers (polytheism and animism) with the notion of sacred forces. In the ancient era, around 3300–1300 BCE, in the Bronze Age, there is a record of the Indus Valley civilization or the Northern Western region of the India subcontinent. That’s where the Hindu religion, also known as Santana Dharma, originated. Around 2600 BCE, the oldest surviving Egyptian pyramid was commissioned by Pharaoh Djoser. The first of the oldest surviving religion texts, the Pyramid Texts, was composed in ancient Egypt around 2400 BCE. Around 2200 BCE, the Minoan civilization developed in Crete, where citizens worshipped a variety of goddess.

Here is a time line of the emergence of important and noteworthy religious events:

The Ancient Era

3300–1300 BCE - The Indus Valley civilization was a Bronze Age civilization.

2635–2610 BCE - The oldest surviving Egyptian pyramid was commissioned by Pharaoh Djoser.

1700–1100 BCE - The oldest of Hindu Vedas (scriptures), the Rig Veda, was composed.

1250–600 BCE - The Upanishads (Vedic texts) were composed.

600–500 BCE – The earliest Confucian writings.

563 BCE - Gautama Buddha, founder of Buddhism, was born.

440 BCE - Zoroastrianism entered the record of history.

250 BCE- The third Buddhist council was convened by Ashoka. Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to faraway countries such as China and Southeast Asia.

100 BCE–500 CE - The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, the foundational texts of Yoga, were composed.

The Common Era

4 BCE–30/33 CE – The life of Jesus of Nazareth, the central figure of Christianity.

31–36 – The death of John the Baptist.

70 – The siege of Jerusalem, the destruction of the temple, and the rise of Rabbinic Judaism.

325 - The council of Nicaea convened and established the original Nicene Creed.

~350 - The oldest record of the complete biblical texts survives in Greek translation called the Septuagint.

380 – Theodosius 1 declared Nicene Christianity the state religion of the Roman Empire.

Middle Ages (fifth to fifteenth centuries)

570–632 – The life of Muhammad ibn Abdullah, the prophet of Islam.

Early Modern and Modern Era

1517 - Martin Luther launched the Protestant reformation.

1893 - Swami Vivekananda’s first speech at the Parliament of World Religions in Chicago brought the ancient philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga to the Western world.

1931 - Jehovah’s Witnesses emerged from the Bible student movement under the influence of Joseph Franklin Rutherford.

1939–1945 – Millions of Jews were relocated and murdered by the Nazis during the Holocaust.

1954 – The Church of Scientology was founded by L. Ron Hubbard.

1959 - The 14th Dalai Lama fled Tibet amid unrest and established an exiled community in India.

1961 – Unitarian Universalism was formed from the merger of Unitarianism and Universalism.

1965 – The International Society for Krishna Consciousness was introduced.

21st Century

2008 - Nepal, the world’s only Hindu kingdom, was declared a secular state by its constitutional assembly.

2015 – World Yoga community was registered in the United States.

For most people, religion is an organized system of beliefs and practices intended to keep one in close contact with the highest being recognized by that religion. As such, religion has provided a path for the masses to follow for centuries. The blind faith and belief of religion has been the way of humans for many centuries. Organized religion emerged as a means of maintaining peace and conveying spiritual messages to the masses.

The major religions of the world are Christianity, constituting 33 percent of the world population, Islam 24 percent, Hinduism 15 percent, Buddhism 7 percent, and others about 20 percent. The others include nonreligious, agnostics, atheists, and secular humanists. And among nonreligious, half of them consider themselves theistic.

The written history of religion is only five thousand years old. A lack of written records means that most of the knowledge of prehistoric religion is derived from archaeological records, other indirect sources, and suppositions. Much prehistoric religion is subject to continued debate. In the prehistoric era, the earliest known anatomically human burials and cremations took place around forty thousand years ago. Homo-sapiens was introduced to Europe and the decline of Neanderthals appeared 35,000–26,000 BCE, and individual skulls and long bones began appearing heavily stained with red ochre and separately buried. This process may be the origin of sacred relics.

In the old times, humans worshipped spirits, images, idols, and imaginary gods. Three religions stand in the word that have come down to us from prehistoric times. These were Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, and Judaism. Judaism failed to absorb Christianity and was driven out of its place of birth by other Abrahamic religions, mainly Christianity and to some extent Islam. Zoroastrianism in Persia was destroyed by Islam. Over time, the persecution of Zoroastrians became more common and widespread, and the number of believers decreased by force significantly. So now only a handful of Parsis remain in the world. Three major religions survived—Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam. Buddhism is an offshoot of Hinduism. It quickly spread to China, Japan, and Southeast Asia and became another religion with 7 percent of the world’s population.

An ancient religion can be compared to the attic of an old home. Unless the attic is regularly cleaned, it gathers dust and cobwebs and eventually becomes unsafe. Similarly, if a religion cannot be updated and cleaned from time to time, it loses its usefulness and cannot relate anymore to changed times and people. But this didn’t happen to the three major religions, Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam. Fortunately, many genuine scholars have tried to clean, reform, revitalize, and make them relevant to the changed times, but their efforts have achieved only small success.

In science, if new research and evidence contradicts the old theory, then the old theory is discarded and replaced with a new one. But in religion, the old scripture cannot be replaced, as their sayings or verses are etched in stone. Based on my research into the study of religious scriptures, it doesn’t matter if the old traditions or ideas defy science or common sense; these old traditions and practices continue. Religion is based on blind faith. To protest the blind faith, many religious scholars like Bart Ehrman become agnostic. Another famous scientist, Richard Dawkins, became atheist. Numerous humans who are turned off by the rigid, old-fashioned traditions and rituals, have become either atheist, agnostic, or humanists.

Humanism is not a religion in the traditional sense, as there are no continued rules, no set of beliefs one must follow, no higher power one must give over to, and no requirement to attend services or pray at bedtime. It’s a pursuit of knowledge and wisdom into aesthetics and daily living. Humanism is a philosophical and ethical stance that emphasizes the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively, and is based on rationalism and empiricism over acceptance of dogma or superstition. There are four to five million people that adhere to humanism worldwide.

God in all religions is considered to be omnipotent, having infinite power and resources as well as perfect knowledge and wisdom. By proper use of their knowledge and intellect, people recognize their creator and possess belief in him. The creator has given us eyes to observe reality, ears to listen, and above all, a mind to form a right opinion based on reasoning and logic, not on blind faith advocated by any particular religion. Unfortunately, that’s not the case with any religion, whether it’s Hinduism, Judaism, Christianity, or Islam. Each religion insists it is the only way to reach God.

In Abrahamic tradition, for Judaism, the Torah is the holy book; for Christians it’s the Holy Bible, and for Muslims it’s the Quran. In Hinduism, it’s the Holy Gita. Each religion stresses that every word in their holy book comes directly from God and is unalterable. Even though most of the traditional religions’ concepts are outdated, and half the world’s population (which is female) has been marginalized in each major religion, the holy book cannot be modified to adapt and adjust to current society. The old-age concepts still flourish. For example, it’s well documented that human evolution is millions of years old and gradually evolved through natural selection, but Abrahamic religion, whether Judaism, Christianity or Islam, still believes in the unscientific theory of Adam and Eve. Eve was created from the ribs of a man, a male chauvinistic view. Eve was tempted by a talking serpent to eat forbidden fruit, and God punished future generations for the sin committed by Adam and Eve. How absurd and illogical it is but still believed by billions of Christians. It’s unfortunate that in this age, fundamentalists ignore Darwin and oppose teaching evolution in our schools.

Each religion emphasizes compassion, peace, love, dignity, respect for human life, and justice for all. True religion consists of moral excellence, living a life of purity, love, and altruism; it hears no evil, sees no evil, and does no evil. Reciting a holy book doesn’t make a person holy. People should have true convictions rather than following traditional rituals described in the holy books and must above all follow the moral code in their life. I believe deeds are more important than reciting holy words in the temple, church, or mosque. In this context, this author has developed a concept of humanity. Salient features of each religion are critiqued, synthesized, and integrated into a new model of humanity. The basic principle of humanism is blended into the positive features of religion, based on sound reasoning, logic, and common sense. The Ten Commandments are replaced with ten guiding principles of humanity. Traditional religion has many flaws, but nonetheless it has helped, inspired, and instilled hope in millions of humans. I believe it need not be changed completely; it can be at least reformed, keeping intact all the values, cherished by many, that are consistent with current human values while discarding outdated ideas that defy science and logic. These old concepts are to be replaced with new concepts based on critical thinking and logical reasoning.

In this endeavor, this book is intended to enlighten minds with practical, spiritual steps, leading one to a harmonious, blissful life. It is divided into four sections starting with an introduction and the oldest religions—Hinduism and its offshoot, Buddhism. The second section deals with Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The third section deals with spirituality, humanism, and humanitarianism. The fourth section is a summary and conclusion. This author has postgraduate degrees in pure science, applied science, and social science. This book blends science, social science, and spiritual science, integrating them into a format of practical living based on human ideals and values.

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HINDUISM

1.

Introduction

H induism is the oldest religion in the world and goes back as far as 6000 BCE. Three religions stand in the world which have come down to us from prehistoric times. These are Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, and Judaism. Judaism failed to absorb Christianity and was driven out of its place of birth by other Abrahamic religions. While a handful of Parsis are all who now remain to tell the tale of this grand religion, Hinduism survived despite efforts by Islam and Christian believers to convert Hindus into their respective faiths.

From the high spiritual ideals of the Vedanta philosophy, to the low ideals of idolatry, with its multifarious mythology, Hinduism has thrived. Hinduism believes in the supreme reality and its trinity of forms: forms Brahma, the creator of the universe; Vishnu, the sustainer; and Shiva, the redeemer. Vishnu appears in various incarnations to preserve the good and destroy evil. Hindu philosophy states that the soul (atman) can attain salvation (moksha) through devotion (bhakti) to God and by doing one’s duty without attachment to the fruits of action. Hindus believe in the law of cause and effect, which states that each person creates his or her own destiny through thoughts, words, and deeds (karma). The soul reincarnates, evolving through many births into different physical forms until it attains salvation.

Hindus follow four different approaches to God, either by jnana-yoga (the path of knowledge and contemplation), by karma-yoga (the path of work and duty), by bhakti yoga (the path of worship, prayer, and service to God), or by raja-yoga (the path of active seeking through hatha yoga or meditation and thus being one with God). Most often, one finds a suitable combination to attain salvation. Hinduism is the largest pluralistic religion in the world. It teaches that there are many paths, many sages, and many holy books and that no religion can claim any exclusive or final representations of truth. The idea of unity of religion is expressed in the precept "Ekam sat vipra bahudah vadanthi, which means God is one; the wise call God by different names" (Rig Veda verse 1:164:46). Hinduism has never tried to create any one center, one church, or one doctrine or to impose its views through any means. It has sought to preserve diversity.

History of Hinduism

The ancestors of the Hindus were known as Aryas. The English counterpart of the Sanskrit word Arya is Aryan or Indo-Aryan. The Aryas called their religion Arya Dharma- the religion of the Aryas. The word Hinduism was completely unknown to them. The word dharma in this context means religion or religious duties. Sanskrit, which belongs to the Indo-European family of languages, was the language of the Indo-Aryans. The Aryans also called their religion Manava Dharma or religion of the man, meaning it was the religion of humankind. Another name was Sanatan Dharma.

The English word for dharma is religion. The word religion derives from the Latin prefix re and the root ligare. Ri means to revert to the original state; ligare means to conduct or lead there. Conducting or leading the atman (soul) back to God is the true function of religion or dharma. In this way religion or dharma shows the way to God realization. Sanatan means eternal. Thus, Sanatan Dharma is eternal religion, illustrating the belief that religion was based on eternal truths. The name Hinduism came much later.

One of the neighboring countries, Persia, had a common border with ancient India, which at that time was known as Aryavarta, the land of the Aryans. This common border between Persia and ancient India was the River Indus, called in Sanskrit Sindhu. The Persians could not pronounce Sindhu correctly, instead they pronounced it Hindu. They also called the Aryans living on the other side of the river Sindhu, Hindus. Thus, the religion of the Aryans became known as Hinduism.

Hinduism has the unique distinction of having no known founder. The eternal and super-sensuous truths discovered by ancient Indian sages are the foundation of Hinduism. Various saints and divine incarnations at different times have appeared on the stage, played their individual roles, and enriched Hinduism with their teaching. By reinterpreting earlier scripture texts, they made the religion relevant to changed times and people. They have given validity to the scriptural truths through their own super-spiritual experiences.

Early Hindu Society and Its Origins

It’s generally believed that the ancestors of the Indo-Aryans migrated from central Asia. Other scholars think they came from Arctic. While some Western scholars thought they came from Lithuania, some scholars think Aryan was the religion of southeastern Europe. The migration of Indo-Aryans into India probably started in 1700 BCE and continued until 1500 BCE. Max Muller, a renowned Sanskrit scholar from Germany, is credited with the popularization of the Aryan invasion theory. According to this theory, northern India was invaded and conquered by a nomadic light-skinned race of people called Aryans and descended from central Asia around 1500 BCE. Aryans destroyed civilizations of people inhabiting the Indus Valley and imposed their own culture and language. Swami Vivekananda, one of the greatest exponents of Hinduism, believed that the Indo-Aryans were indigenous to India and had not come from anywhere else. Dr. Dinesh Agrawal, in the book Chronology of Hinduism, disputes the Aryan invasion theory and has detailed major flaws in this theory and references the Rig Veda and Ramayana, which date back before the reported Aryan settlement. While Dr. Agrawal makes a strong contention about early Hindus being indigenous people, his beliefs that Caucasians can be any color, ranging from white to almost pure black, and that the Mahabharata instead of being a local skirmish was a civil war of global proportions, are difficult to comprehend. It is generally accepted there was a migration of people from central Asia and parts of Europe into the Indus Valley, influencing the culture of that region.

Early Indo-Aryan Society

Indo-Aryans were divided into four social categories, popularly known as the caste system. This division was originally based on people’s inherent qualities or talent. A person naturally endowed with noble qualities belonged to the Brahmin or priestly caste. Brahmins possessed great spiritual and moral virtues and were assigned to teach and give spiritual guidance to others. Those endowed with physical strength were rulers, warriors, and administrators and were classified into the Kshatriya caste. The third caste was the Vaishya, who were agriculturalists and traders. The last caste was the Shudra and included laborers and others.

Originally every caste was given equal importance. Each was considered essential for order in society. As time passed, vested interests crept in. Caste, originally determined by the qualities and aptitudes of the individual, was made heredity by self-interested people in positions of power and authority. They wanted to perpetuate their caste-based social privileges. As a result, the caste system degenerated. Some castes were artificially made superior or higher and others inferior or lower. The Shudra caste was looked down upon, and the higher castes distanced themselves from Shudra caste persons.

The Brahmins, who belonged to the highest caste, comprised the learned priestly class. They held positions of respect and honor in the society. Kshatriya, belonging to the second highest caste, held the positions of kings or warriors and could enjoy wealth and power. Vaishyas belonged to the next lower class. Even though they could not be priests, kings, or military officers, they could find satisfaction from wealth earned through agriculture or trade. But the Shudras, reduced to the lowest caste, were denied many privileges, including Vedic and higher education, and suffered the most. This disparity in privileges corrupted the caste system and eventually bred intercaste jealousy, hatred, and conflict. Under these circumstances, the conditions of the untouchables or the outcasts became even worse. Persons from the lowest caste were not even permitted in the temples, as they were outcasts. This social system became so rigid and hereditary that a person from the lowest caste who received a higher education was still regarded as belonging to the Shudra, the lowest caste. On the other hand, if the son of a Brahmin (highest caste) became criminal minded, he still would retain the upper caste status. Thus, the system became defective and stood in the way of lowest class members’ ability to progress in society.

After India’s independence in 1947, the government started the affirmative action program to uplift the lowest class Shudras. They were given a quota for reservation of seats in higher education, jobs, and other opportunities. This affirmative action was a good beginning to move the lowest class people into the mainstream, but the system has been in existence for more than half a century and has only benefited select individuals. This quota system has many drawbacks as many marginalized, qualified candidates were admitted to higher education and experienced difficulties keeping up with the rigors of the high standards of education and training. Many persons from other castes resented giving preferential treatment to the lowest class person based on a quota system instead of giving opportunity based on merit. People of India widely condemned the severely weakened and yet lingering specter of the caste system, yet some politicians and others with ulterior motives tried to keep the system alive by promoting intercaste hatred and conflict.

The Four Stages of Early Hindu Life

In ancient times, the Hindus, known as Aryans, were expected to go through the four stages of Aryan life. The four stages are:

1. Brahmacharya (celibacy)

2. Garhastha (household)

3. Vanaspratha (retired)

4. Sannyasa (renouncement)

Brahmacharya is the first stage, in which individuals receive education. During this period, a person practices celibacy, receives formal education, and develops character. Besides receiving academic training, moral and spiritual training is also received. After graduation, individuals enter the second stage of life.

Garhastha is the second stage of life and starts with marriage. Marriage occurs between members of the same caste. After marriage, one becomes a householder, following the dictates of the scriptures. The married man earns an honest living, practices hospitality, raises children, honors his elders, and takes care of his parents. The husband and wife observe complete fidelity. Great importance was given to raising noble children. Men were allowed to practice polygamy. This double standard probably existed because Aryan society at that time was dominated by men. Divorce was not permitted, as marriage was meant to last the entire lifetime of the partner. In today’s society, divorce is permitted for Hindus by a law enacted in 1955. The government of India has also passed a law banning polygamy. The Muslim population is exempt from the law.

Vanaspratha is the third stage of life according to Manu (spiritual son of Brahma) or archetypal man. When a householder sees his skin wrinkled and his hair white, his time for entering this stage of life has come. After returning from active household duties, it is time to rest and live a spiritual, simple life, study Vedas regularly, and perform daily prayers.

Sannyasa is the fourth and last stage of life. This is a transition from a life as hermit to a life as ascetic or monk. In this stage, one practically renounces all worldly things and fully engages oneself in meditation and spiritual concentration.

History of Hinduism

The Hinduism history consists of the Pre-Vedic period, the Vedic period, the Epic period, and the Modern period.

The Pre-Vedic period (2600–1700 BCE). This is the Indus Valley civilization, where Mohenjo Dara a city of Indus Valley civilization was built around 2600 BC, located now in the Sindh Province of Pakistan. Mohenjo Daro, one of the world’s first cities, is referred to as An ancient Indus Valley Metropolis.

The Vedic period (1700–700 BCE) is named after the Vedic religion of the Indo-Aryans. Around 1900 BCE, people started to leave the Indus Valley area. By around the eighteenth century BCE, most of the cities were abandoned. In the aftermath of the Indus Valley civilization’s collapse, regional cultures emerged to varying degrees, showing the influence of the Indus civilization. In the formerly great city of Harappa, burials have been found that correspond to a regional culture. In this context of the aftermath of a civilization collapse, Indo-Aryan immigration took place in northern India. During the Vedic period, the core texts of four Vedas—Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yagur Veda, and Atharva Veda—and the Upanishads were formulated.

Second Urbanization (500–200 BCE)

Increasing urbanization of India between 800 and 400 BCE contributed to the rise of the ascetic movement. This gave rise to movement of Mahavira (549–477 BCE), the prominence of Janism, and Buddha (563–483 BCE), founder of Buddhism. The ascetic tradition of the Vedic period in part created the foundational theory of samsara (the cyclical nature of life—concept of rebirth) and of moksha (meaning liberation from samsara), which became characteristics for Hinduism along with Buddhism and Jainism.

Preclassical Hinduism (200 BCE–300 CE)

The Hindu synthesis or Brahmanical synthesis incorporated sramanic (self-denying lifestyle in pursuit of spiritual liberation) and Buddhist influences into the Brahmanical fold via smriti (remembered) literature. The smriti texts of the period between 200 BCE and 100 CE affirmed the authority of the Vedas. The major Sanskrit epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata, which belong to smriti, were compiled over a protracted period.

Golden Age Gupta Empire (320–650 CE)

During the Gupta period, the first stone and cave temples to Hindu deities were built, some of which have survived into the modern era. Numerous monasteries and universities were also built during the era of the Gupta dynasty, which supported Vedic and non-Vedic studies, including famed Nalanda University. The first version of the early Purana, likely composed between 250 and 500 CE, shows continuities with Vedic religion, but also expanded mythology of Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi (goddess).

Late Classical Hinduism – Puranic Hinduism (650–-1150 CE)

After the end of the Gupta Empire, power became decentralized in India. This led to regionalization of religious rivalry. The first editions of many Puranas were composed in this period. Examples include Bhagavata Purana and Vishnu Purana, with legends of Krishna. All of them included topics such as yoga practice and pilgrimage to Hindu holy sites. The major Hinduism scholar of this period was Adishankara.

Islamic Rule and Bhakti movement (1200–1700 CE)

Islamic rule witnessed Hindu-Muslim confrontation and violence. Enslavement of non-Muslims, especially Hindus in India, was one result of Muslim raids and conquests. The Muslim ruler Akbar abolished the practice of enslaving the families of war captives, recognized Hinduism, and protected Hindu temples. Hinduism underwent profound changes, added in part by teachers such as Ramanuja and Chaitanya.

Modern Period (from Circa 1800)

With the onset of British rule, the colonization of India by Britain, there also started a Hindu Renaissance in the nineteenth century, which profoundly changed the understanding of Hinduism both in India and in the West. Indology as an academic discipline of studying Indian culture from a European perspective was established in the nineteenth century, led by scholars such as Max Muller and John Woodruff.

Hindutva – Twentieth Century

In the twentieth century, Hinduism also gained prominence as a political force and a source for national identity in India. This led to the movement of Hindutva ideology, the establishment of the Rastriya Swayam Sevak (RSS) party in 1925 and later offshoots Jana Sangha and Bhartiya Janta Party (BJP) in electoral politics in post-independence India. Hindu religiosity plays an important role in the nationalistic movement. Time line of Hinduism (including Humanity) is given here as referenced in the notes at the end of this book.

Time Line

2.5m BCE: Genus Homo originates in Africa, cradle of humanity.

300,000 BCE: Homo sapiens roams the earth from Africa to Asia.

100,000 BCE: Home sapiens with twentieth-century man’s brain size.

75,000 BCE: Last ice age begins. Human population is 1.7 million.

30,000 BCE: American Indians spread throughout the Americas.

10,000 BCE: Last ice age ends after 65,000 years; earliest signs of agriculture. World population 4 million; India is 100,000.

10,000 BCE: Vedic culture, the essence of humanity’s eternal wisdom.

7000 BCE: Time of Manu, father of mankind.

6500 BCE: Rig Veda verses.

5000 BCE: World population 5 million.

4000 BCE: India population 1 million.

4000 BCE: Date of world’s creation (Christian genealogies).

3102 BCE: Kali Era Hindu calendar starts.

3100 BCE: Aryan people inhabit Iran, Iraq, and western Indus-Valley frontier.

2600 BCE: Major portions of Veda hymns are composed.

ca.-2040 BCE: Prince Rama is born at Ayodhya.

2000 BCE: World population 27 million, India 5 million or 22 percent of world.

1472 BCE: Reign of Dhritarashtra, father of the Kauravas; reign of Yudhisthira, king of the Pandavas.

1450 BCE: Early Upanishads composed.

1316 BCE: Mahabharata epic poem is composed by Sage Vyasa.

1250 BCE: Moses leads 6,000 Jews of out Egypt.

1,000 BCE: World population is 50 million.

623–543 BCE: Life of Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, born.

500 BCE: World population 100 million, India 25 million.

326 BCE: Alexander the Great of Greece invades, but fails to conquer northern India.

305 BCE: Chandragupta Maurya, founder of first pan-Indian Empire.

297 BCE: Emperor Chandragupta abdicates to become a Jain monk.

273 BCE: Ashoka greatest Mauryan Emperor, grandson of Chandragupta, is crowned.

200 BCE: Lifetime of Patanjali. He writes the Yoga Sutra.

4 BCE: Jesus of Nazareth, founder of Christianity, is born in Bethlehem.

10 CE: World population 170 million, India 35 million.

ca. 60 CE: Buddhism introduced in China by Emperor Ming after he converts to the faith.

105 CE: Paper is invented in China.

ca. 200 CE: Hindu kingdom established in Cambodia and Malaysia.

350 CE: Imperial Gupta dynasty flourishes.

375 CE: Maharaja Chandragupta II Vikramaditya, greatest Hindu monarch, reigns to 413.

ca. 400 CE: Vatsyayana writes Kama sutra, famous text on erotics.

500 CE: World population 190 million; India 50 million or 26.3 percent of world.

570–632 CE: Lifetime of Muhammad, founder of Islam.

1000 CE: World population 265 million, India 79 million or 29.8 percent of world.

1017: Mahmud of Ghazni sacks Mathura, birthplace of Lord Krishna, and establishes a mosque on the site during one of the seventeen Indian invasions for holy war and plunder

1024: Mahmud of Ghazni plunders Somanath Siva temple, destroying the Lingam and killing 50,000 Hindu defenders.

1200: All of north India is under Muslim domination; India populations reaches 80 million.

1227: Mongolian emperor Genghis Khan, conqueror of a vast area from Beijing, China, dies.

1347: Plague called the Black Death spreads rapidly killing 75 million worldwide before it recedes in 1351.

1429: Joan of Arc, age 17, leads the French to victory over the English.

1469–1538: Lifetime of Guru Nanak, founder of Sikhism.

1500: World population 425 million, India 105 million.

1528: Emperor Babur destroys temple at Lord Rama’s birthplace in Ayodhya, erects Muslim masjid or monument.

1556: Akbar (1542–1605), grandson of Babur, becomes third Mughal emperor at age 13. De-establishes Islam as state religion and declares himself impartial ruler of Hindus and Muslims.

1589: Akbar rules half of India, shows tolerance for all faiths.

1605: Sikh Golden Temple is completely covered with gold leaf.

1613–1614: British East India Company sets up trading post at Surat.

1619: First black slaves from Africa are sold in the US.

1627–1680: Life of Sivaji, valiant general and founder of Hindu Maratha empire.

1647: Shah Jahan completes Taj Mahal beside Yamanu River.

1649: Red Fort is completed in Delhi by Shah Jahan.

1664: Great plague of London kills 70,000, 15 percent of the population.

1675: Aurangzeb executes Sikh guru Tegh Bahadur; Sikh-Muslim feud begins.

1679: Aurangzeb levies jizya tax on nonbelievers, Hindus.

1700: World population 610 million; India 165 million or 27 percent of world.

1708: Govind Singh, tenth and last Guru, is assassinated.

1781: George Washington defeats British at Yorktown, US.

1789: French revolution begins with storming of the Bastille.

1820: First Indian immigrant arrives in the US.

1824-83: Lifetime of Swami Dayananda Sarasvati, founder of Arya Samaj.

1833: Slavery is abolished in British Commonwealth countries, giving impetus to abolitionists in the United States.

1850: First English translation of the Rig Veda by H. H. Wilson.

1859: Charles Darwin releases controversial book On the Origin of Species.

1893: Swami Vivekananda represents Hinduism at Chicago’s Parliament of the World’s Religions.

1898–1907: Cholera epidemic claims 370,000 lives in India.

1900: World population 1.6 billion; India 290 million or 17.8 percent of world.

1917: Communists under Lenin seize power in Russia.

1918: World War I end, deaths estimated at 10 million.

1923: US law excludes citizens of India from naturalization.

1926: Satya Sai Baba is born, Hindu Universalist guru.

1945: Germany surrenders to Allied forces. 6 million Jews are killed during World War II.

1945: US drops atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, ending World War II. Total war dead 60 million.

1947: India gains independence from British in August 15; Pakistan emerges as a separate Islamic nation, and 600,000 die in clashes during subsequent population exchange between the two new countries.

1950: India is declared a secular republic.

1951: India Bharatiya Janata Sangh (BJP) is founded.

1955: Albert Einstein, German-American physicist, dies.

1959: Dalai Lama flees Tibet and finds refuge in North India as China Invades the Buddhist nation.

1964: Rock group the Beatles practice Transcendental Meditation, bringing fame to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi.

1965: US immigration cancels racial qualification and restores naturalization rights, welcomes 170,000 Asians yearly.

1966: Nehru’s daughter, Indira Gandhi, becomes prime minister of India, world’s largest democracy.

1974: India detonates a nuclear device.

1981: India has one-half world’s cattle, eight cows for every ten Indians.

1992: World population 5.2 billion; India 895 million or 17 percent of world.

1994: Harvard University research identifies over 800 Hindu temples open for worship in the United States.

2000: World population 6.2 billion; India 1.2 billion or 20 percent of world.

2.

Hindu Doctrines and Ethics

Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and a way of life. Hinduism includes a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions but has no ecclesiastical order, no questionable religious authorities, no prophets (but there are incarnations of God), nor any binding book (even though the Holy Gita is considered one of the most important aspects of Hinduism).

The fundamentals of Hindu belief include the authority of the Vedas, the existence of an enduring soul that transmigrates from one body to another at death (reincarnation), and the law of karma, which determines one’s destiny both in this life and the next. The core beliefs are that truth is eternal, Brahman is truth and reality, Brahman is true God and formless, the Vedas are ultimate reality, and everyone should strive to achieve dharma (religion or morality). Individual souls are immortal, and the goal of each individual soul is moksha. The four major tenets of Hinduism known as purusharthas (aims of human life) are dharma (duties, ethics), artha (prosperity, work and wealth), kama (desires/passions), and moksha (liberation or enlightenment).

The Hindu system comprises within its fold six historical divisions into six darsanas (philosophies), of which two schools, Vedanta and Yoga, are currently the most prominent. Classified by primary deity or deities, four major currents of Hinduism are Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Devi), and Smartism (or Advaita Vedanta). Hinduism also accepts divine beings, with many Hindus consider the deities to be aspects or manifestations of a single impersonal absolute or ultimate reality or God, while some Hindus maintain that a specific deity represents the supreme, and various deities are lower manifestations of a single impersonal absolute or ultimate reality or God. Other notable characters include belief in existence of atman (soul, self), reincarnation of one’s atman, and karma as well as a belief in dharma, which constitutes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues, and right ways of living.

Six darsanas (philosophies) as mentioned above are grouped under the category of astika darsanas (systems that accept the authority of the Vedas): Nyaya Darsana, Vaisheshika Darsana, Samkhya Darsana, Yoga Darsana, Mimamsa Darsana, and Vedanta Darsana.

The Nyaya Theory of Knowledge

There are four distinct and separate sources of true knowledge:

1. Pratyaksha (direct perception),

2. Anumana (inference),

3. Upamana (comparison); and

4. Shabda (verbal testimony).

Hence the Sruti or the Vedas are considered as shabda in the highest sense. The Nyaya system accepts Ishvara or God as the ultimate cause of creation, maintenance, and destruction of the world. However, he doesn’t create the world of out nothing or out of himself but out of internal atoms, space, time, ether, minds, and souls.

Vaisheshika Darsana

Like the Nyaya system Vaisheshika Darsana also is a realistic philosophy which combines pluralism with theism. Creation is not by chance but executed by God in a planned manner as per karmas of individual souls, for the proper realization of their ultimate moral perfection.

Samkhya Darsana

Unlike many other systems, the Samkhya accept only three valid sources of knowledge. They are direct perception, inference, and testimony. Samkhya describes three characteristics called gunas. They are sattvaguna, producing pleasure or happiness; rajoguna, producing pain and suffering; and tamoguna, producing neither. Sattva defines what is pure and fine and conduces to production of knowledge as well as happiness. Rajas is ever active. It is also responsible for desires and ambitions, to fulfill which one has to actively work. Tamas is stolid and offers resistance. It tends to sleep and contribute to inactivity. Prakriti (nature) is the basic material, from which the universe evolves. It is nature, it has no consciousness. The purpose of soul on the other hand is conscious entity. The main cause of bondage of the purusa (person, soul) and his consequent suffering in the world is ignorance, nondiscrimination between himself as pure conscious and nature, the unconscious entity.

Yoga Darsana

Yoga Darsana is not only ancient but also very practical. Methods and techniques of yoga are becoming quite popular all over the world. Through the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, a work heavily oriented toward sadhana or spiritual practice, to basic knowledge of its samkhyan, the Yoga Sutra prescribed a graded discipline compromising eight steps, called the astangas of yoga. These are yama (restraint), niyama (observance), asana (postures), pranayama (control of vital currents), pratyahara (state of withdrawal), dharana (concentration), dhyana (meditation), and samadhi (total absorption). Out of these, the first five are considered as external aids and the last three as internal aids to yoga. Ahimsa (non-injury), satya (truth), asteya (non-stealing), brahmacharya (continence), and aparigraha (non-acceptance of gifts) constitute yama, the first step. Niyama includes cleanliness; contentment; austerity of body, speech, and mind; study of holy books; and repetition of mantras like Aum and devotion to God. The former contributes to social harmony and later to the personal purity. The three disciplines of Tapas (austerity of body, spirit, and mind), study of holy books, and chanting of mantras and devotion to God are grouped together by Patanjali and called kriya yoga, which is effective as a shortcut to yoga. Asanas (postures) are currently extremely popular in the west. Pranayama is controlling the vital airs in the body through the regulation of breathing. When the sense organs are withdrawn from the sense objects, they remain as they were in the mind. This is called pratyahara (state of withdrawal). The next three disciplines—dharana, dhyana and samadhi—are actually three continuous steps of the same process. In dharana, the mind is fixed on the object of concentration. When the concentration becomes uninterrupted, it is dhyana. When dhyana ripens into a state of total absorption on the object, so much so that the aspirant is not even aware of his own existence, it’s called samadhi. Samadhi can be attained by devotion to God.

Yogadarsana is not only ancient but practical. Modern psychologists are discovering its utility in guarding or regaining mental health. The first two steps, yama and niyama, can contribute to the well-being of the individual as well as society. The various asanas known as