Metabolic States: Notes on Stress, Nutrition and Exercise

By Larry Hoover

Our current state of health is almost entirely the result of 5 factors:

diet

physical activity

amount of sleep

DNA

the environment



Except for DNA (e.g. sex, race) and various aspects of our immediate environment, these facets of life are under our voluntary control. Altogether, they produce a net rate of wear and tear on the body or something referred to as stress.



Stress is ultimately responsible for our:

bodyweight

body composition

state of health

rate of aging



and your METABOLIC STATE (theres 7!)

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris US
• Release date: Oct 29, 2013
• ISBN: 9781483659077

Larry Hoover

Larry lives in western Pennsylvania and has had a lifelong interest in health. He says, I hope everyone manages to take away something useful from this analysis of stress, nutrition, and exercise.

Book preview

Copyright © 2013, 2017 by Larry Hoover.

ISBN:                  Softcover                        978-1-4836-5906-0

                            eBook                               978-1-4836-5907-7

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

Rev. date: 12/28/2017

Xlibris

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Dedicated to my parents, Eileen and Melvin Hoover.

CONTENTS

INTRO

PART 1:   FOOD AND CELLULAR FUEL

1. CARBOHYDRATES

2. FATS

3. PROTEIN

4. DIGESTION

5. CALORIES, ENERGY, AND BIOCHEMICAL CATALYSTS

6. ATP AND ELECTRON TRANSPORT

7. CELLULAR RESPIRATION

PART 2:   METABOLISM

8. CALORIE REQUIREMENTS

9. THE METABOLIC RATE

10. THE METABOLIC STATES

11. MACRONUTRIENTS IN THE BODY

12. BODY HEAT

PART 3:   STRESS

13. STRESS

14. BAD STRESS

PART 4:   CALORIE USAGE (and longevity)

15. INSULIN AND BLOOD SUGAR LEVELS

16. NORMAL CATABOLISM

17. HUNGER

18. PROLONGED FOOD DEPRIVATION

19. DIET, LONGEVITY, AND THE CELLULAR LIFE SPAN

20. THE ANABOLIC DEVELOPMENT OF GLYCOGEN

21. THE ANABOLIC DEVELOPMENT OF BODYFAT

22. THE ANABOLIC DEVELOPMENT OF STRUCTURAL PROTEINS

PART 5:   COMPOSITION AND THE METABOLIC STATES

23. BODY COMPOSITION AND TISSUE TYPES

24. BONE, MARROW, AND CALCIUM

25. BODYFAT

26. LEAN BODY MASS

27. COMPOSITION CHANGES AND METABOLIC MODES

28. THE METABOLIC- COMPOSITION STATES

PART 6:   NUTRITIONAL TIPS

29. A BALANCED DIET

30. PLANT NUTRIENTS

31. BLOOD SUGAR

32. FIBER

33. COMPLETE AND INCOMPLETE PROTEINS

34. PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS AND NITROGEN BALANCE

35. DIETARY FAT

36. CHOLESTEROL AND BLOODFATS

37. EFAS AND THE INFLAMMATION CLUSTER

38. WATER

PART 7:   MUSCLE FIBERS

39. MUSCLE FIBER CONTRACTION

40. EXERCISE AND THE SKELETAL MUSCLES

41. THE GAS EXCHANGE AND OXYGEN DEBT

42. THE ENERGY SYSTEMS

43. FATIGUE AND RECOVERY

44. INTENSITY AND THE HEARTBEAT RATE

45. FUEL-BURNING RATIOS

46. MUSCLE FIBER TYPES

47. PHYSICAL FITNESS AND THE VO2 MAX

PART 8:   EXERCISE (plus a note on the parasympathetic nervous system)

48. EXERCISE AND WEIGHT MANAGEMENT

49. AEROBIC (& ANAEROBIC) EXERCISE TO LOSE BODYFAT

50. RESISTANCE TRAINING TO BUILD MUSCLE

51. THE PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

APPENDICES

1:     MATH CONVERSIONS AND FORMULAS

2:     COMPOSITION OF THE AVERAGE ADULT

3:     FRAME SIZE

4:     BODYWEIGHTS FOR AVERAGE BUILDS

5:     BODY MASS INDEX (BMI)

6:     BODYFAT PERCENTAGE

8:     BODY MEASUREMENTS

9:     BASAL METABOLISM

12:   DAILY VALUES (DVS)

13:   DIETARY DEFICIENCIES

14:   PHYSICAL FITNESS TESTS

15:   PHYSICAL ACTIVITY EXPENDITURE

16:   STRESS ASSESSMENT

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The world is a dangerous place for life to survive in, . . . cosmic force stands ever ready to destroy life. It is called entropy, the universal tendency for order to break down into disorder.

The human body exists in utter defiance of entropy, since it is incredibly orderly and capable of adding to its order with even more complexity.

Creation and destruction coexist. In every cell some chemical reactions are creative—producing new proteins, for example, from building blocks of amino acids—while others are destructive—for instance, the process of digestion, which breaks down complex foods into simpler compounds, or the process of metabolism, which burns sugar and releases its stored energy.

The hydra . . . is a primitive water animal that can grow new cells as fast as old ones are shed . . . . (T)he hydra is always growing at one end and dying at the other, renewing its entire body every two weeks . . . . This is creation and destruction in perfect balance . . . .

. . . (A) balanced metabolism . . . (is) . . . a constant chemical flow that processes food, air, and water in perfect equilibrium, without losing a stitch to entropy.

There are three forces pervading all life: creation, maintenance, and destruction. All three are present in the life span of cells, stars, trees, planets, and galaxies, since every form must come into being, be maintained, and pass away . . . . This three-in-one intelligence is what you are trying to affect when you consciously shape your life; it is up to you which aspect—creation, maintenance, or destruction—is most dominant. Because you have the power to shift the balance of forces, you are above and beyond them.

Favorite quotations from Ageless Body, Timeless Mind by

DEEPAK CHOPRA, M.D.

MOVE!

Life is a dance, a game, a song, a road, a river, a maze, a battle! Get up and dance it, sing, jump, walk, crawl, climb, soar, fight, play, run, move! All that lives, moves! But you sit too much, you sigh and watch a healthy life slip by, bemoaning your unhappy state, when your body itself wants to move, needs to move, was made to move! Put the book down, let yourself go. You can do it—move!

The living organism . . . is alive because it moves.

Alexander Lowen, Pleasure

You are built to move all day long, eat enough to keep going, sleep soundly even on rough ground, get up with the sun and move again. Your whole array of bones, muscles, joints, and organs is no different from that of Stone Age man and woman, who hunted wild animals and gathered wild fruits and plants and fought off predators all day long—except that you use them less! When you were born you weren’t any less well-endowed for movement than a child of the Masai tribesmen of East Africa, who can run 40 miles every day; you weren’t any less well-equipped than a baby of the Tarahumara Indians of Mexico, who run 200-mile non-stop kickball races over rocky mountain terrain, for fun! The human body is a machine built for movement, for action, for energy. Life is movement!

Life starts with a breath and ends with the end of breath.

Yogi Bhajan

Alive, a man is supple and yielding; in death, hard and stiff. All creatures and plants, alive, are supple and pliant, and dead, are withered and brittle. Therefore, to be hard and stiff is the way of death; to be supple and yielding is the way of life.

Lao Tzu

Favorite quotations from Bodymind by

DON ETHAN MILLER.

INTRO

This is a health book. It was written for 3 reasons:

• to organize some notes on fitness and nutrition I had collected

• to demonstrate the broad range of physical variation amongst individuals

• to uncover the physiological processes responsible for those variations

Once we understand why we are the way we are—metabolism and body composition-wise—we can begin to do something about it if we desire change. This collection of notes can help make such an undertaking successful.

According to Dr. David B. Agus’ book and PBS program entitled The End of Illness, our current state of health is almost wholly the result of 4 factors: DNA or genetics, diet, physical activity, and the environment. At least one additional factor should be included—the amount of sleep we get every 24 hours. We generally discount sleep as something we all do but its importance to health is inestimable. Just try not sleeping! Except for DNA (e.g. sex, race) and various aspects of our immediate environment, these facets of life are under voluntary control and subject to our personal discretion. Altogether, they produce a net rate of wear and tear on the body or something referred to as stress. Stress ultimately determines our bodyweight, body composition, and state of health. Stress is also responsible for the rate at which we age.

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Everyone is unique and normal within their own personal and natural state of health and well-being. This is especially true concerning the bodyweight and body measurements charts found in the appendices and elsewhere in the book. Many of these charts have been calculated with Excel worksheets written especially for this book. The data simply represents the average for a very large adult population. Any single numerical value will not apply to most individuals—we are all different and most not ideal or even average.

Some understanding of human physiology will help you get through this volume. The definitions of terms are brief so some previous exposure to basic biology or physiology will help fill the voids. I hope everyone manages to take away something useful from this analysis of stress, nutrition, and exercise.

I would like to thank my teachers, coaches, relatives, and friends who have contributed more than they know to this book. All I can say is Thank You—I am forever in your debt. I would also like to thank everyone at Xlibris who never gave up even when we began correcting corrections. Thanks.

AUTHOR

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PART 1

FOOD AND CELLULAR FUEL

Food is an important part of a balanced diet.

Fran Lebowitz

1. CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are the sugars and starches manufactured by plant cells during photosynthesis. Photosynthesis literally means synthesis through light. It is the ability of plants to convert sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into oxygen, carbohydrates, and heat. Photosynthesis can be represented by the following formulas:

Carbohydrates contain only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are organic or CHO molecules because the carbon is derived from plants and animals that were once alive. (Inorganic molecules on the other hand do not usually contain carbon.) In biochemistry, carbohydrates are the primary source of acids and alcohols. They comprise over 40% of the average diet but only 1% of a human’s bodyweight.

Sugar molecules known as monosaccharides are the basic building blocks of all carbohydrates. Biochemists categorize monosaccharides by the number of carbon atoms they contain—2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, etc. All the carbohydrates discussed in this book are built from only four types of 6-carbon sugars or hexoses (i.e. glucose, mannose, galactose, and fructose). Monosaccharides in the form of 5-carbon pentoses are found in the RNA and DNA molecules (i.e. ribose, deoxyribose).

If water is removed from two or more monosaccharides, a chemical bond forms linking them together. In chemistry, the linkage of molecules by the removal of water is known as condensation or polymerization, a form of dehydration. When at least two types of monosaccharide molecules are bonded together the result is a disaccharide. The monosaccharides and disaccharides are together referred to as simple sugars.

At least three to thousands of individual simple sugar molecules can be condensed (or polymerized) to form long chains known as polysaccharides or starches. Starches are readily broken down into their original simple sugars upon the addition of water. The chemical breakdown of starches is known as hydrolysis, a form of rehydration.

The most usable carbohydrate for humans is glucose, also known as dextrose, grape sugar, or blood sugar. All foods can be burned or oxidized in the body to produce energy but cells prefer to use glucose. Within the liver and skeletal muscles, glucose can be polymerized to form glycogen—a starch found only in animals. Glucose that is not immediately used for energy by cells can be stored as a deposit of glycogen. Whenever glucose is needed, glycogen is hydrolyzed or rehydrated into its original units of simple sugar molecules.

Some starches are not easily broken down or digested within the gastrointestinal or GI tract. Indigestible starches form the roughage or fiber in the diet which is necessary for complete elimination. The most abundant organic compound in the earth’s biosphere is cellulose—an indigestible starch found in plants. The second most abundant is lignin, another indigestible starch found in wood.

2. FATS

Fat is manufactured by all living organisms from surplus amounts of carbohydrate. Carbohydrate-rich plant and animal cells produce their own fat—vegetable oils and milkfat for instance. The fats or lipids include the triglycerides, phospholipids, waxes, and steroids (or sterol alcohols). In this volume, it will only be necessary to discuss the triglycerides, phospholipids, and a particular form of sterol alcohol known as cholesterol (C27H46O).

Triglycerides (TGs) are the fats and oils that comprise 95% of all dietary fat. A triglyceride ester consists of glycerol (C3H8O3)—a greasy alcohol derived from sugar—plus 3 chains of fatty acids. Esters are formed from the chemical reaction of an acid with an alcohol. Although the composition of different fats varies, about 10% is glycerol and 90% fatty acids. Vinegar or acetic acid (C2H4O2) is one of the simplest fatty acids.

A fat is either saturated or unsaturated depending upon the molecular structure of its fatty acid chains:

• Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) contain as much hydrogen as their carbon atoms are capable of holding. They also contain only single bonds between pairs of carbon atoms and tend to be solid at room temperature (68o F.) Saturated fats are usually derived from animals (e.g. butter, beef fat) although some tropical plants manufacture them (e.g. coconut oil, palm kernel oil).

• An unsaturated fatty acid is not completely saturated with hydrogen, has the potential to hold more, and tends to be liquid or semi-solid at room temperature. Unsaturated fats are usually derived from plants (e.g. corn, olives) but can also be found in fish, organ meats, red meat, cartilage, and egg yolks. There are two types of unsaturated fatty acids:

o A fatty acid that contains one strong double bond between a pair of carbon atoms is referred to as a monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA).

o A fatty acid that contains 2 or more double bonds between pairs of carbon atoms is a polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA).

Dietary fats generally contain varying amounts of both saturated and unsaturated fats. Whatever comprises the largest percentage defines the fat as one type or the other. Most polyunsaturated fat in the body is derived from only two of the PUFAs—linoleic (LA) and alpha-linolenic (ALA). These are referred to as essential fatty acids (EFAs) because they are not easily manufactured by the body and must be obtained from dietary sources.

Ingested nutrients are usually absorbed from the GI tract directly into the bloodstream. Fat absorption is different. Fat is first absorbed into the lymphatic system and then the bloodstream. Lining the small intestine are minute, stalk-like projections (1/20th of an inch long) known as villi that increase the surface area and rate of nutrient absorption. Within cells of intestinal villi, digested triglycerides (i.e. glycerol and fatty acids) combine with protein and usually cholesterol to form microscopic particles known as lipoproteins. The lipoproteins produced within villi drain into lymphatic channels and eventually enter the bloodstream. When mixed together, water and fat normally separate but fat in the form of a lipoprotein readily combines with blood plasma (i.e. the watery portion of blood) for transport around the body. Most circulating fats are in the form of lipoproteins although fatty acids can sometimes be found free, that is, without glycerol.

The lymphatic system is a secondary circulatory system that consists of fluid-filled vessels found mostly within the abdominal and chest cavities. The fluid carrying lipoproteins is referred to as lymph or lymphatic fluid. Lymph always flows towards the heart and drains into the left subclavian vein at the base of the neck. Blood plasma that seeps from the bloodstream and tissues makes its way into extracellular spaces and lymphatic channels before eventually returning to the bloodstream.

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FIGURE 1    Unlike other nutrients, digested fat enters the lymphatic system instead of the bloodstream. The products of fat digestion are reorganized into lipoproteins within cells of intestinal villi and released into lacteals of the lymphatic system. Lymph carrying lipoproteins eventually drains into the left subclavian vein. The villus itself is approximately 1/20th of an inch long.

The problem with lipoproteins in the bloodstream is their tendency to accumulate on the walls of arteries resulting in heart disease or stroke. Fortunately, the level of bloodfats is reduced by conversion into bodyfat. Fatty deposits beneath the skin provide insulation from cold temperatures and prevent body heat loss and hypothermia. The membranes of cells contain a lot of fat as well as the insulating membrane of nerve cells (i.e. myelin). Fat is also a potent source of energy and its conservation has been vital for the survival of man during periods of food shortages.

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3. PROTEIN

Protein forms the chief structural substance of the body. All cells contain protein and manufacture it. Fifty to 80% of the dry weight of an animal cell is protein. Body tissues that contain protein include the following:

Protein is composed of long chains of amino acid molecules. There are over 20 different amino acids and the sequence of their linkage in a chain determines the type of protein synthesized by a cell. Unlike carbohydrates and fats, amino acids contain nitrogen, a component of all living organisms and their waste products. Nitrogen comprises 10-20% of an amino acid molecule. In plants such as the legumes (e.g. peas, beans, peanuts, and soybeans), bacteria within root nodules convert atmospheric nitrogen and nitrogen compounds in the soil into nitrates which can be absorbed and stored within the plant. All plants contain protein but only the legumes contain large amounts and most amino acids. The amino acids cysteine and methionine also contain sulfur.

Cells in the body can synthesize half of the amino acids they require for normal growth and repair of tissues. If dietary nitrogen is available, these nonessential amino acids can be manufactured through simple biochemical reactions as needed. The remaining amino acids require more complex synthesis and are more readily obtained directly from the diet. Amino acids that cannot easily be synthesized by the body are known as essential amino acids or EAAs.

Structural proteins in the body are constantly breaking down into their constituent amino acids due to the wear-and-tear of daily stress. Stress may result from a diet deficient in carbohydrates or protein or vigorous physical activity. When structural proteins breakdown, amino acids travel in the bloodstream to the liver where the nitrogen-containing amine group (NH2) is removed through a process known as deamination (page 110). The liver converts amines into urea, a toxic waste product that is transported in the bloodstream to the kidneys. The kidneys convert urea and other wastes into non-toxic urine which is sent to the bladder for excretion. The breakdown of protein body structure is followed by increased concentrations of nitrogen in the urine. The carbon skeleton that remains in the liver is essentially a carbohydrate that can be used like glucose.

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FIGURE 2    The carbohydrates. Mono- and di-saccharides are referred to as simple sugars. (Adapted from Nutrition and Vitamins by Ann M. Holmes.)

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FIGURE 3   The fatty acids. Saturates are further classified by the number of carbon atoms they contain or chain length whereas the unsaturates are classified by the position of the final carbon-to-carbon double bond. The omega molecules tend to be medium- to very long-chain molecules (page 233).

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FIGURE 4    The amino acids. Asterisks (*) indicate arginine and histidine are essential for infants.

4. DIGESTION

Ingested food must first be broken down or digested within the GI tract before a cell can use the carbohydrate, fat, or protein molecules. Digestion or the chemical breakdown of food, is a complex process that requires 15-30 hours for completion. Most digestion occurs in the stomach and upper portion of the small intestine (i.e. the duodenum). From the small intestine, simple sugars and amino acids are absorbed into the mesenteric and portal veins and transported to the liver. From the liver, they eventually reach the heart and are pumped out to all the cells and tissues of the body. The products of fat digestion—glycerol and fatty acids—are first reorganized into lipoproteins within the cells of intestinal villi before entering the lymphatic channels and eventually the bloodstream. Some absorption occurs further down the GI tract but the amount of water and nutrients in the lower portion is greatly reduced.

The digestive process requires various digestive juices such as water, enzymes, hormones, and other substances. Water alone can breakdown some molecules such as the starches but it is also important for the digestion of fats and proteins. Digestive enzymes are small protein molecules secreted by the salivary glands, small intestine, and pancreas that catalyze and speedup the chemical breakdown of ingested food. Enzymes are usually distinguished by the suffix "ase" such as amylase, lipase, peptidase, etc. Bile is not an enzyme but is necessary for the emulsification of ingested fats. Small droplets of emulsified fat provide a greater surface for further breakdown by lipase. Bile is produced in the liver, stored in the gallbladder, and released to the small intestine whenever fats are present.

The hormones involved in digestion are released by special secretory cells in the stomach and small intestine whenever food is present. Hormones travel in the bloodstream to the digestive organs where they: 1) stimulate the release of bile and digestive enzymes, 2) chemically activate enzymes, 3) delay the stomach from dumping into the duodenum, or 4) neutralize the acidic content of pepsin. Pepsin contains hydrochloric acid and is responsible for most protein digestion. slippery mucus that prevents the GI lining from being digested.

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FIGURE 5  The most important substances involved in digestion.

5. CALORIES, ENERGY, AND BIOCHEMICAL CATALYSTS

Calories and Energy: For lack of a better definition, energy is the capacity to do work and tends to become heat. Work is a term used by physicists to define the transport of mass over a distance (e.g. lifting a weight overhead) or the transfer of heat (e.g. the excitation of atomic particles due to friction). According to Albert Einstein, matter and energy are the same or interconvertible at the speed of light squared—that is, matter contains an internal component of energy. All energy originally comes from the sun but a small amount is captured by plants and stored in the chemical bonds of molecules and atomic orbitals of electrons. The body converts the potential energy of ingested food into thermal, electrochemical, and mechanical bio-energies or stores it for future use. The potential energy of matter is converted into free energy whenever work is performed.

The energy content of food is measured in units known as calories. A calorie is equal to the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of one milliliter of water one degree Celsius. Nutritional calories are actually referred to as large calories or kilocalories but in this volume they will be referred to simply as calories. Caloric energy is measurable with a device known as a bomb calorimeter in which food is incinerated and the amount of heat released measured and recorded. The caloric content for each of the major food groups as measured by the bomb calorimeter is:

(NOTE: One teaspoon contains about 3.9 grams alcohol, 4.4 grams fat, 4.9 grams water, 6.9 grams protein, and 7.4 grams carbohydrate.)

These caloric values are only averages that best represent the food group. If any two food molecules are not identical with the same number and type of chemical bonds between atoms, they probably do not contain the same amount of energy. For example, one gram of glucose (a monosaccharide) contains 3.7 calories but one gram of sucrose (a disaccharide) contains 4.0 calories.

Biochemical Catalysts: Ingested food contains more potential energy than cells and tissues can use all at once. Like raw petroleum that cannot be used in an automobile until it has been converted into motor oil and gasoline, raw food molecules need refinement. The conversion of food calories into fuel that can be used by cells is the responsibility of enzymes and coenzymes.

Enzymes are small protein molecules manufactured by living tissues. They catalyze and speedup chemical reactions that would not otherwise occur or would occur only slowly. Different enzymes produce different results. For example, digestive enzymes breakdown food in the GI tract whereas plant enzymes turn green tomatoes red even after they have been picked from the vine. Amylase enzyme can breakdown starch into simple sugars while other types of enzymes breakdown sugar into acids, gases, or alcohols. The enzymes present in yeast, a single-celled fungus, convert sugars into alcohol which is necessary for the fermentation of legal beverages.

Virtually all biochemical reactions within organisms require the presence of enzymes. Enzymes, however, are often unable to function unless coenzymes are present. Unlike enzymes, coenzymes are not organic proteins but smaller, mineral-derived molecules that enter into reactions together with enzymes. Some coenzymes are metallic ions that attach to enzymes simply to carry hydrogen ions. Once their job is completed, they are released from the enzyme, restored to their original condition by other enzymes, and recycled to perform the same role over and over again several times a minute. In the absence of enzymes, biochemical reactions slow down and come to a halt. In the absence of coenzymes, biochemical reactions may not take place at all.