Processing Public Speaking: Perspectives in Information Production and Consumption.

By A. Kanu and S. Durham

Processing Public Speaking covers all the traditional topics and offers much more, including chapters on public speaking traditions, public speaking as communication process, processing the introductory speech, processing technology in public speaking, processing listening, oral interpretation, analyzing audiences, organizing and outlining speeches, persuasive speaking, and debating, processing verbal communication, processing nonverbal communication, and delivery, impromptu speaking and ethics. As an invaluable resource Processing Public Speaking allows readers to access practical information that describes the production and consumption of presentations in technical, humanities, and social science, business, and education courses. The approaches in this text include tailoring public messages by identifying what the audience wants and needs with adaptation to cultural differences with focus on the public speaking heritage of rhetorical discourse.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris US
• Release date: Apr 1, 2014
• ISBN: 9781493175390

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Copyright © 2014 by A. Kanu, D.A. & S. Durham, M.A.

Library of Congress Control Number:   2014903667

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   Softcover   978-1-4931-7541-3

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CONTENTS

Processing Public Speaking Traditions

Public Speaking As a Communication Process

Processing the Introductory Speech

Processing Technology in Public Speaking

Listening in Public Speaking

Processing Oral Interpretation

Processing Audience Analysis

Processing, Organizing, and Outlining Public Presentations

Processing Informative Speaking

Processing Speech Anxiety

Processing Persuasive Speaking

BOOK SUMMARY

Processing Public Speaking covers all the traditional topics and offers much more, including chapters on public speaking traditions, public speaking as communication process, processing the introductory speech, processing technology in public speaking, processing listening, oral interpretation, analyzing audiences, organizing and outlining speeches, persuasive speaking, and debating, processing verbal communication, processing nonverbal communication, and delivery, impromptu speaking and ethics. As an invaluable resource Processing Public Speaking allows readers to access practical information that describes the production and consumption of presentations in technical, humanities, and social science, business, and education courses. The approaches in this text include tailoring public messages by identifying what the audience wants and needs with adaptation to cultural differences with focus on the public speaking heritage of rhetorical discourse.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Communication Professor Dr. Alusine M. Kanu is a native of Sierra Leone and visionary for the development of a community college system in his native home. A seasoned professional, Kanu has had a long-term career as professor in communication Studies at Northern Virginia Community College and at George Mason University. Professor Kanu is author of Experiencing interactive interpersonal communication, Connecting intercultural communication: Strategies for communicating effectively across cultures, Reflections in communication: An interdisciplinary approach, and Faculty development programs: Applications in teaching and learning.

Shaunda S. Durham, M.A., is an Image Consultant and a Communication Professor at Northern Virginia Community College. Research interests include image management, public speaking anxiety, gender and interpersonal communication. Durham is a graduate of the University of Illinois at Springfield, with specializations in Mass Media and Interpersonal Communication. Durham is currently pursuing a Doctorate of Education at Argosy University.

INTRODUCTION

Processing Public Speaking, by Dr. Alusine M. Kanu and Shaunda S. Durham, M.A. applies theory and principles of public address with emphasis on speech preparation and delivery. The underlying premise in this text is to enable readers to gain understanding of the elements involved in the process of oral communication. The emphasis will be on principles and types of oral communication, especially on giving information and understanding the principles of persuasion with added practice in preparing and presenting material in public settings. The desired objectives are:

1.   To increase awareness of the fundamental principles of communication as they apply in a variety of settings.

2.   To teach self-monitoring with basis for life-long improvement of communication skills.

3.   To reinforce existing speaking skills and identify areas for improvement.

4.   To gain insight and understanding of the uses of technology in the process of oral communication.

5.   To understand the persuasion process and gain skill in using that process.

The 11 participative and interactive chapters to reinforce Processing

Public Speaking:

The approaches in Processing Public Speaking are to learn how to tailor public messages accordingly by identifying what the audience wants and needs, appealing to the core values of listeners, establishing common bonds with focus on areas of agreement, and avoiding judgments based on stereotypes. Kanu and Durham, in Processing Public Speaking adapts to cultural differences by focusing on the public speaking heritage of universal values with credible information from published sources, web sites, articles, and other public speaking-related material. Planning, learning, being sensitive and adapting messages with considerations of meanings are the reasons for compiling Processing Public Speaking.

CHAPTER 1

Processing Public Speaking Traditions

Welcome to Public Speaking

Welcome to public speaking, said the instructor. By enrolling in this course you are giving yourself not one but three golden opportunities. First, the opportunity to grow personally; second, the opportunity to excel in your career; and third, the opportunity to practice communication skills essential to the survival of a democracy.

Dana heard everything the instructor was saying, but the words just bounced around in her head. Public speaking. Public speaking. Public speaking. Not only did Dana have to give presentations at work, but now, to earn her degree, she was going to have to give speeches in class too. That was all she could think about. Give speeches. Give speeches. Give speeches.

Giving presentations at work was easy because her topics were always chosen for her. The audience was one Dana knew and interacted with daily. She made an effort because the outcomes were important to her personal well-being and financial stability. But this was different. Here she was facing a group of students with whom she had never interacted previously, a group of students who were not joined by a loyalty to some corporate being, and who had no stake in her success or failure. What would she talk to these people about? What would she have in common with them?

As Dana pondered these questions, the instructor continued: Public speaking is more important today than ever before. With the advent of the information explosion, society’s burdens fall on those who, of necessity, need to be able to make sense of and give order to this wealth of new information. In addition, you will need to be able to speak to a society in which diversity is now a fact of life. At colleges across the country, the instructor said, now quoting from an article in the New York Times, ‘Student bodies are not only more diverse in terms of ethnicity, income and age; they are also more heterogeneous in terms of preparation and aptitude. Today’s students do not all have the same interests, nor do they wish to learn the same things. In the typical college classroom, the social, cultural and intellectual differences among individual students are immediately and persistently in evidence.’ The instructor put the newspaper down and, looking straight at the students, continued, Thus, the need to develop effective speaking skills that enable you to adapt to such differences will almost certainly affect you in the very near future. Indeed, I am willing to go so far as to say that the amount of success you experience in the future will relate directly to your ability to speak effectively before different public. With that in mind, your first assignment is to identify how public speaking can enable you to make a difference in the new world in which we live.

Dana stared silently at the professor and nodded her head. She and the other students were facing a new world. Her experiences mirrored the changing experiences of students across the country.

black.jpg    Put yourself in Dana’s situation.

1.   What would you say to fulfill the assignment? Explain in detail.

2.   How might the skills you develop in this class better prepare you to speak confidently in a variety of contexts? Be specific.

Adapted by Alusine M. Kanu from Gamble, T. K. (1998) Public speaking in an age of diversity. Boston: Allyn and Bacon

Definition of Communication

Students have been studying public speaking for thousands of years. Rhetorical education became a central part of the radically democratic city-state of Athens, Greece. Studying public speaking was essential to fulfill one’s duty as a democratic citizen. It is important for any public speaking student to understand the history of rhetorical education in Ancient Greece and Rome. When we understand the history of rhetorical study, we learn just how much public speaking has evolved to fit contemporary times, yet retained many of the same ideas that emerged centuries ago. Also, we have the advantage of learning from the great minds that came before us. In the next section we will offer a general overview of the rise of rhetorical education in Ancient Greece and Rome, as well as mention some noteworthy individuals. So let’s head back to Ancient Greece, where public speaking became a vital part of everyday, democratic life.

The rich history and culture of public speaking in the United States has developed in three general arenas: (1) politics, (2) advocacy, and (3) specialty areas such as business, history, communication, etc. As you have seen, public speaking and politics have been intricately entwined as far back as Ancient Greece. Politics, generally understood as the authoritative allocation of scarce resources and values, has yielded some of our greatest speakers. Some of our most eloquent politicians have been: Abraham Lincoln, Franklin Delano Roossevelt, Barbara Jordan, John F. Kennedy, Eleanor Roosevelt, Ronald Reagan, and Bill and Hillary Clinton. In the area of advocacy, speakers actively endorse a cause, policy or idea to bolster additional support from others. Some of our most powerful and moving advocates have been Sojourner Truth, Margaret Stanton, Martin Luther King J., Emma Goldman, Malcolm X, Gloria Steinem, Ceasar Chavez, Elie Wiesel, and even Bono. Practically any specialty area or academic field is full of individuals that speak at conferences, public lectures, and awards ceremonies. A few people who fall within this category are Bill Gates, John Stewart, bell hooks, Oprah Winfrey, Steve Jobs, and Umberto Eco.

The oral tradition of public speaking is most closely tied to the study of rhetoric. Rhetoric is generally known as the art of using discourse to persuade people. Most often, rhetoric is used to persuade individuals to take up or reject a belief, assign a meaning to a person, event, or object, or even perform an action. Rhetoric is actually one of the oldest disciplines studied in the Western world; its origins date about to around 476 BC (Murphy, 1983). Rhetorical scholarship originally focused on both the creation of and analysis of public speaking since it has historically been the main vehicle of persuasion. Political assemblies and campaigns are still prototypical contexts of rhetorical, public speech. Ironically, rhetorical theory emerged from written classical texts from the ancient Western civilizations of Greece and Rome.

Historically, the study of rhetoric has been based in Western thought (specifically Greek and Roman), which solely reflects European culture and beliefs and promotes a western perspective from which rhetorical analysis is practiced. However, rhetoric and the practice of rhetorical speech were not exclusive to the West. Ancient African, Middle Eastern, Asian, and Latino cultures all have rich oral traditions which have largely been left out of the history of rhetorical study. Today, scholars are increasingly turning to the works of rhetors in regions such as China, Iraq and Egypt, to aid in the development of an evolving multicultural tradition of rhetoric rather than its static and unnecessarily narrow western one. For instance, an analysis of the rhetorical style of Mencius (371-289 BCE), a Confucian social philosopher from Ancient China, found that he used the common theme of water to help persuade people of his political belief that the benevolent has no enemy (Ma, 2000). Also, did you know that Enheduanna (2300-2225 BCE), a high priestess in the ancient Sumerian city of Ur (currently known as Southern Iraq), was the first author in recorded history and is largely considered a feminist?

The First Amendment

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press; or the right of people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.—U.S. Constitution

Credo of the National Communication Association

The National Communication Association (NCA) is the largest professional organization representing communication instructors, researchers, practitioners and students in the United States. In 1999, the NCA Legislative Council adopted this Credo for Ethical Communication (National Communication Association, 1999).

•   We advocate truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason as essential to the integrity of communication.

•   We endorse freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and tolerance of dissent to achieve informed and responsible decision making.

•   We strive to understand and respect other communicators before evaluating and responding to their messages.

•   We promote communication climates of caring and mutual understanding that respect the unique needs and characteristics of individual communicators.

•   We condemn communication that degrades people through distortion, intimidation, coercion, and violence, or expression of intolerance and hatred.

•   We are committed to the courageous expression of personal conviction in pursuit of fairness and justice.

•   We advocate sharing information, opinions, and feelings when facing significant choices while also respecting privacy and confidentiality.

•   We accept responsibility for the short—and long-term consequences for our own communication and expect the same of others.

Source: McCornack, S. (2007). Reflect & Relate. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s.

History of Free Speech in the United States

Source: Beebe, S.A. and Beebe, S.J. (2009). Public Speaking: An Audience-Centered Approach with Public Speaking Student Handbook by Brigit Talkington and Don Boileau. New York: Custom Publishing.

Aspects of Rhetorical Criticism

An Outline of Studies in This Area. In order to illustrate the implications and ramifications of this broad area of critical inquiry, consider the following tabular analysis which indicates the various types of studies suggested by the divisions and classifications of the art of rhetoric and public address.

I   The Nature of Public Address

A.   Oratory and politics

B.   The speaker’s role in the social process

C.   Political and social conditions favoring the development of public address

D.   Values of public address

1.   Social

2.   Political

3.   Aesthetic

4.   Moral and ethical

5.   Intellectual

6.   Utilitarian

E.   Characteristics of public address of a group or section

II.   Constituents of the Speaking Situations

A.   The speaker

1.   Qualifications and experience

2.   Factors accounting for his skill

a.   Native ability

b.   Home influence

c.   Training

d.   General reading

e.   Early speaking experience

3.   Rhetorical philosophy

4.   Theory in relation to his practice in discourse

B.   The occasion

1.   Social setting of the speech: its place in the historical continuum

2.   Contributing events

3.   Its immediate nature

a.   Place

b.   Time

c.   Prevailing customs

C.   The audience

1.   Nature of the audience; its composition

a.   Immediate

b.   Greater: reading, radio, television

2.   Its relation to the subject

3.   Its relation to the speaker

Determining Areas of Investigation

D.   The subject

1.   Its relation to the audience

2.   Its relation to the occasion

3.   Its relation to the speaker

III.   The Services of the Speaker

A.   The ends of discourse

1.   To instruct

2.   To stimulate or inspire

3.   To persuade

B.   The speaker’s skill in each of the duties

IV.   The Types of Speaking

A.   Classical divisions

1.   Deliberative

2.   Forensic

3.   Ceremonial or epidectic

4.   Pulpit

B.   Current types

1.   Legislative

2.   Judicial

3.   Business or professional

4.   Academic or educational

5.   Labor

6.   Dedicatory and commencement

7.   Pulpit

8.   Radio and television

9.   Dinner speaking

10.   Campaign

V.   The Parts of Rhetoric and Public Address

A.   Invention

1.   Philosophical point of view

2.   The speaker’s stock of ideas

3.   The basic premises of his thinking

4.   The status of his discourses

5.   His lines of arguments

6.   Form of inference and evidence

7.   Exposition

8.   Amplification

9.   Adaptation of his arguments to hears and the occasion

B.   Speech structure (disposition)

1.   Conception of speech plan in general

2.   Specific parts of speech

a.   Introduction

b.   Proposition

The Classical Tradition of Rhetoric

Source: Beebe, S.A. and Beebe, S.J. (2009). Public Speaking: An Audience-Centered Approach with Public Speaking Student Handbook by Brigit Talkington and Don Boileau. New York: Custom Publishing.

Classical Rhetoric on the Web

Source: O’Hair, D. et al. (2010) Speaker’s Guidebook: Text and Reference. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s.

Are Speeches Magic?

Peggy Noonan, best-selling author, columnist, and presidential speechwriter, discusses the getting-down-to-business part of putting a speech together.

You have to figure out what you’re going to say, and then you have to figure out how you’re going to say it. Here your mind freezes, held back by a number of things, including the idea many people have, the idea they’ve received, that speeches are magic, that they are some combination of sorcery and show business that cannot, by a normal human, be achieved.

But speeches are not magic. Reduced to its essentials, a speech is a combination of information and opinion written on paper and spoken with the mouth. If you can have a thoughtful conversation, you can probably write and give a thoughtful speech.

Source: Peggy Noonan, Simply Speaking: How to Communicate Your Ideas With Style, Substance, and Clarity. (New York, ReganBooks, an imprint of HarperCollins Pub-ishers), 1998, p. xi.

Questions

1.   Have you ever thought that speeches were magic? Are there certain magical elements in speeches? If so, what are they? Would you consider the confluence (bringing together) of speaker, audience, situation, and idea magical?

2.   What more is there than determining what you want to say and how you want to say it? Is that all there is?

3.   Noonan says, If you can have a thoughtful conversation, you can probably write and give a thoughtful speech. In what ways are having a conversation and giving a speech similar? In what ways are they different?

Source: Hybels, S. and Weaver, R.L. II (2001). Communicating effectively, 6th ed. Boston: McGraw Hill.

Canons

Canons of Rhetoric developed by classical scholars Aristotle and Cicero

Aristotle and Cicero divided the process of preparing a speech into five parts.

1.   Invention: Adapting speech information to the audience to make your case. (Constructive arguments)

2.   Arrangement: Organizing the speech in ways that are best suited to the topic and the audience. (Ordering the speech)

3.   Style: How a speaker uses language to express speech ideas. (Figures of Speech)

4.   Memory: Practicing the speech until it can be artfully delivered

5.   Delivery: Vocal and non-verbal behaviors

The Canons of Rhetoric and Speechmaking Today

Source: O’Hair, D. et al. (2010) Speaker’s Guidebook: Text and Reference. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s.

Wisdom from Ancient Teachers

Ancient teachers of rhetoric taught students to master five specific canons, or arts, of public speaking that remain relevant today:

   Invention: The art of discovering ideas for speaking and arguments, or proofs to support claims and increase a speaker’s credibility.

black.jpg    Organization: The art of arranging ideas clearly and effectively to enhance a speaker’s credibility.

black.jpg    Style: The art of speaking well with grace, clarity, and vitality.

black.jpg    Memory: The art of familiarizing oneself with the content of one’s speech so that one’s energies can be devoted to delivery and interaction with listeners.

black.jpg    Delivery: The art of presenting a speech effectively and credibly.

Source: Wood, J.T. (2011). Communication mosaics: An introduction to the field of communication. Boston, MA: Wadsworth.

Public/Private Self-Assessment

Please mark the following topics as:

Private if it is comfortable to discuss only with close friends or family

Public if it is comfortable to discuss with casual friends or strangers

Developed by Donna Stringer, Ph.D., 2008. Sources: Dean C. Barnlund. (1975). Public and private self in Japan and the United States. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural press; and Paul Pedersen. (1988). A Handbook for developing multicultural awareness. Alexandria, VA: American Association of Counseling and Development.

Source: Stringer, D.M. and Cassiday, P.A. (2009). 52 activities for improving cross-cultural communication. Boston, MA: Intercultural Press.

Stressing Out: Public Speaking Elevates

Stress Hormone Levels

The ability to speak in public is critical for success in a range of careers. For many individuals, however, public speaking has a dark side. It causes them to experience physical stress. Some of the effects of stress are relatively noticeable, such as increases in heart rate and perspiration. The experience of stress also causes rises in stress hor-mones, which, although they may not be immediately obvious, have multiple effects on the body.

Research by communication scientists James Roberts, Chris Sawyer, and Ralph Behnke indicates that when college students deliver a speech in front of a group of their peers, their level of the stress hormone cortisol rises. Specifically, students showed a dramatic increase in cortisol from before the speech to eight minutes after they began speaking. Cortisol level continually decreased from that point on, as students recovered from their stress.

Stress hormones such as cortisol prepare the body in multiple ways to deal effectively with a stressor. For instance, they reduce blood flow to the extremities—the reason why our hands and feet may feel cold when we’re nervous—so that more blood is available to our internal organs. They also increase the level of sugar in our blood so that the muscles have more fuel than normal, and they activate the immune system in case it needs to respond to an injury. Such reactions can be helpful in the short term by giving us more physical resources to manage a stressor. However, repeated exposure to stress has many negative effects on the body, including reduced muscle mass and decreased immune system strength.

Ask Yourself

•   What physical reactions do you notice in your body when you’re under stress?

•   Instead of studying students, what if the researchers had studied teachers, television reporters, or others who do public speaking for a living? How do you think their results would have been different, if at all?

Source: Roberts, J.B., Sawyer, C.R. and Behnke, R.R. (2004). A neurological representation of speech state anxiety: Mapping salivary cortisol levels of public speakers. Western Journal of Communication, 68, 219-231.

Source: Khory, F. (2011). Communication matters. New York: McGraw Hill.

Putting It All Together:

The Parts of an Organized Presentation

Introduction

1.   Generate interest in topic

2.   Preview main points

Transition

Body

1.   First main point

Transition

2.   Second main point

Transition

3.   Third main point

Conclusion

1.   Reinforce central point

2.   Create memorable moment

Source: Khory, F. (2011). Communication matters. New York: McGraw Hill.

Major Speech Parts