Editing Canadian English, 3rd edition: A Guide for Editors, Writers, and Everyone Who Works with Words

By Karen Virag and Editors' Association of Canada

Editing Canadian English is a style guide, reference manual, judgment-call coach, and much more. Written by expert editors from across the country, it presents a flexible but systematic approach to creating workable Canadian styles.

This comprehensive update includes valuable information on:

• Canadianization

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• Language: English
• Publisher: Editors' Association of Canada
• Release date: Oct 4, 2017
• ISBN: 9781987998023

Book preview

Editing Canadian English

Third Edition

A Guide for Editors, Writers, and Everyone Who Works with Words

Karen Virag, editor-in-chief

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Editors’ Association of Canada

Editors Canada logo

Contents

Cover

Title Page

List of Tables

About Editing Canadian English

1 Canadianization

2 Inclusivity

3 Spelling

4 Compounds and Hyphens

5 Capitalizations

6 Abbreviations

7 Punctuation

8 Measurements

9 Citation

10 The Editor’s Legal and Ethical Responsibilities

11 Working with French in an English Text

12 Editorial Roles and Requirements

13 Editorial Niches

Acknowledgements

Index

Copyright

Guide

Cover

About

Contents

Tables

Start of content

Acknowledgements

Index

Copyright

List of Tables

Table 3.1 -or / -our endings

Table 3.2 -re/-er endings

Table 3.3 -c-/-s- plus endings

Table 3.4 Stems ending in -l/-ll (stressed syllable) and derivations

Table 3.5 Final consonant (unstressed syllable) doubled/not doubled before suffix

Table 3.6 -ise/-ize and -yse/-yze

Table 3.7 Silent -e- retained/deleted before suffix

Table 3.8 Diphthongs/single vowel

Table 3.9 Plurals of foreign words traditional/anglicized

Table 3.10 Miscellaneous

Table 4.1 Examples of hyphenation

Table 4.2 Examples of hyphenation: Prefixes, suffixes, and compounds derived from phrasal verbs

Table 6.1 Abbreviations for Provinces and Territories

Table 8.1 The seven basic metric (SI) units

Table 8.2 The metric prefixes

Table 8.3 Approximate SI/traditional conversions

Table 8.4 Latitude and longitude formats

Table 8.5 Elevation

Table 12.1 Editors Canada certification tests

Table 13.1 Client expectations and requirements checklist

Table 13.2 Physical specifications checklist

Table 13.3 Editing indicators checklist

Table 13.4 Common scientific symbols vulnerable to substitution

Table 13.5 Editing at different stages of comics development

About Editing Canadian English

Editing Canadian English was written for editors, writers, and anyone who works with words. It is intended to help those who seek to use Canadian style.

However, to suggest that there is only one Canadian style is a serious oversimplification. In the past, Canadian editors have combined two copy editing traditions—American and British—to create varying amalgams of the two, with some local colour added. The result was a wide range of styles that were Canadian only by circumstance.

This resource presents a flexible but systematic approach to creating workable Canadian styles. The goal is not to impose a uniform Canadian English style but to help editors make informed and appropriate choices for each project.

Many factors determine which choices are appropriate. For instance, editors must consider house traditions, writers’ preferences, and target audiences. The prose of an academic journal is treated differently from advertising copy destined for bus shelters; cookbooks are treated differently from web copy. We can only advise that these choices be made with the eternal editorial dictum in mind: Be as consistent as possible.

Editing Canadian English began in 1979 as a project of the then fledgling Freelance Editors’ Association of Canada (FEAC), when a committee formed to talk about editing in Canadian. Their hopes were high and their ambitions, they thought, modest: they planned to produce, over the course of a year or so, a booklet of half a dozen chapters that would solve, once and for all, the particular problems of Canadian editors. At that time there were no references that dealt comprehensively with the practical aspects of styling Canadian material for Canadian publications, and the committee set out to fill the gap.

Fortunately for the eventual completion of the project, the committee members did not know what they were getting into. Gradually it became clear that they had set themselves a great task of research and debate, and that even a few years of work would not produce a once-and-for-all guide. The process from inception through publication of the first edition in fact took eight years; it was published in 1987.

Moreover, producing a book by committee is neither simple nor swift; when all members of the committee are very experienced editors, the process can be positively Wagnerian. Only other editors can fully appreciate the poignancy of seven editors sitting around a table for an evening debating the serial comma or defining the precise distinction between the en dash, the hyphen, and the solidus.

The work of creating the second edition (2000) was immeasurably simpler—largely because the non-prescriptive approach of the first edition had been endorsed by users. Nevertheless, the decade leading up to that revision had witnessed the development of reference works by and for users of Canadian English, the proliferation of electronic resources, and radical changes in many areas that affect editing, including the technology of publishing and attitudes toward the use of non-discriminatory language. Some chapters required only a modest updating, but others had to be reconceived. In the first edition, for example, Canada was on the brink of going metric; today we embrace with equanimity a mix of litres and tablespoons, metres and acres.

This third edition of Editing Canadian English, like its predecessors, is not the definitive solution to all problems of Canadian editors, nor is it the official style guide of the Editors’ Association of Canada. Editors in Canada find themselves working for diverse clients and employers and are engaged in a wide variety of projects, so a definitive guide is neither possible nor appropriate. Rather, this is a reference work that aims to help its users make sensible choices based on best practices and on the authors’ many years of editorial experience.

1 Canadianization

1.1 What is Canadianization/localization?

1.2 When is Canadianization appropriate?

1.3 Canadianizing content

1.4 The editorial role

1.5 Rights—and wrongs

1.1 What is Canadianization/localization?

1.1.1 Why Canadianize

1.1.2 Cost considerations

Localization is the process of taking a work from one market and adapting it for use in another market. Canadianization specifically refers to taking material produced outside Canada and adapting it for use in the national Canadian market (as opposed to any particular province or region). Canadian editors, particularly those who edit trade books, are also sometimes asked to adapt a work for the North American market, a process usually referred to as North Americanization.

Canadianization is done when the substance of the publication will serve a Canadian audience but the details (for instance, references to regulations or popular culture, examples, units of measurement, or prices) must be adapted. Consider a post-secondary textbook on financial accounting: the theories are the same around the world, but each country has its own nationally regulated procedures, so the text must be altered to reflect Canadian practice. Similarly, Canadianizing an American guide that rates current car models would have to address the differences between the American and Canadian models, such as price, options, and Canadian regulations regarding safety, emissions standards, and the like.

Localization can be done at the regional, provincial, national, or continental level, and editors who are proficient at localization will be able to do whatever level of adaptation is needed, as long as they are familiar with the target audience. Canadianization is often regarded as a specialized form of editing, but, for Canadian editors, it generally requires only an extra level of awareness in addition to the usual editorial functions.

1.1.1 Why companies Canadianize

Canadianizing an existing work mitigates risk. When a book or other material is a proven success in its originating country, the Canadian company that is adapting the work has the advantage of working with a product that has already been market-tested. Further, before the final decision to Canadianize is made, the company can have a number of experts in the field or potential users review the existing material to give a sense of what their level of enthusiasm for the final product will be, as well as to suggest which features should be retained or enhanced and which should be dropped.

Branding is another consideration. If a company produces one document or website that can then be localized by its affiliates, it can achieve a consistent look and message around the world.

1.1.2 Cost considerations

Cost, however, is almost certainly the most important consideration. Adapting an existing work can save labour and reduce financial risk, since the foreign material provides the basic structure (be it a textbook, trade book, website, brochure, guidebook, or other product). Further, elements such as end-of-chapter exercises or indexes are generally much easier to modify than to create from scratch. The original text, including artwork that would be expensive to recreate, is usually available electronically and can easily be sent around the block or around the world. In the case of a co-publication or package, several publishers around the world may have bought the local rights to the book, creating an economy of scale for the printing and binding.

In the case of a traditional Canadianization project, the original work has been created for a market that is larger than the potential market in Canada, and it may be financially impossible for the Canadian publisher to match the original production job. And so, while Canadianizing an existing work is often cheaper than producing new material, the Canadian publisher may need to revise the existing work to reduce production costs: Could the Canadian book be shorter? Could four-colour artwork be reproduced as two-colour? Could photos be eliminated without sacrificing clarity of presentation? These decisions will affect not only the price of the book but also the way the editor handles its preparation, so the publisher must ensure these decisions are made early on.

1.2 When is Canadianization appropriate?

1.2.1 School materials: reading/mathematics/science

1.2.2 Other school materials

1.2.3 Higher‐education materials

1.2.4 Trade books

1.2.5 Corporate communications

Many kinds of documents are Canadianized, among them school materials, trade books, and corporate communications, but the degree of Canadianization may vary.

1.2.1 School materials for reading, mathematics, and science

Both content and reading level must be considered when adapting a foreign work for a Canadian edition. In primary reading series, the early how-to-read books tend to focus on technique rather than content, and so materials developed elsewhere may be appropriate for Canadianization. Editors should watch for cultural references and ensure that the material does not sound foreign or have too many foreign references. As children progress from simple decoding and begin to read, the cultural content becomes increasingly important, and the pervasive changes that would be required in an adaptation make Canadianization less feasible in terms of both time and cost. Mathematics and science texts, however, are less culture-dependent; thus a Canadian math or science series can be based on an existing work that has already undergone extensive (and expensive) development and classroom testing.

1.2.2 Other school materials

For other elementary and high school texts, such as history, social studies, and geography, original Canadian works are much more common than adapted ones, partly because the market is large enough to support the cost of producing Canadian books, and partly because provincial curriculums are so specific that books must be written to fit them.

1.2.3 Higher-education materials

In college and university textbooks the emphasis changes. Students at this level can be expected to use mathematics and physical science textbooks published elsewhere. It is in social science and business texts that Canadian legislation, history, and context are significant if not central concerns; texts in these fields are therefore prime candidates for Canadianization.

1.2.4 Trade books

(a) Trade fiction and non-fiction books are often adapted for a local market. British novels will sometimes be Americanized so that spellings, cultural references, and colloquialisms will meet American readers’ expectations. For example, the editor may be asked to change the punctuation style from single to double quotes in a British novel set in London, but a Canadian or American publisher may want to keep lift (instead of elevator) and the like, particularly in dialogue. However, fiction is less often Canadianized, as Canadian readers are considered to have a greater tolerance for both British and American English, so the cost-benefit analysis does not usually justify Canadianization.

(b) Canadian publishers will sometimes take a foreign non-fiction work and adapt it for either the Canadian or the North American market. Cooking, gardening, and health are all good candidates for Canadianization, as the original publication will have content that is not appropriate for a Canadian audience. Cookbooks produced in Europe use weights for dry measures, but volume is the North American standard. A gardening book produced in Australia will need to be adapted so it is appropriate for the Canadian climate. A book about a disease that was produced in the United States will need to be adapted so it reflects Canadian treatment practices, laws, and standards, as outlined by Health Canada and other governing bodies.

(c) One important consideration when Canadianizing a non-fiction book is whether it is a co-publication. Certain publishers, often referred to as packagers, specialize in creating four-colour books that will appeal to a broad, worldwide audience. These books often have very high production values, and the packagers offset these high costs by selling rights and printing several different editions on the same print run, thereby securing a significant volume discount. These books are generally typeset with the text and visual elements in two different blacks, referred to as CMYK+K. The fifth black allows the text to be replaced with text translated into different languages and adapted to different markets. As such, any Canadianization done should affect only the fifth black text, not the photos, illustrations, or any other four-colour elements. If in doubt, the editor should query the managing editor so the parameters of the project are clear.

1.2.5 Corporate communications

Multinational companies will sometimes produce communications at their head office, wherever it is in the world, and then export those materials to regional offices. As such, a Canadian company may receive a car manual that was produced in the United States or an instruction manual produced in Germany that it will need to adapt for the Canadian market. Companies will also often have a worldwide corporate website as well as regional websites. The regional office will be able to adapt content from the worldwide site for its own site.

1.3  Canadianizing content

A minimal adaptation would change only those facts or passages in the original that have little or no meaning for Canadian readers. The Canadianizing or adapting author or editor must check every change against its context to ensure that the revised version still rings true. The original may quote a survey stating that 42 percent of the American population favours private schools over public ones. It is inexcusable, but not unheard of, to change American to Canadian in the adapted work. There may be no survey to support such a claim about the Canadian population. Even the concept of public schools is somewhat different in the minds of Canadians. The adapting author or editor must ensure that such statements are based on Canadian research and reflect the specific Canadian situation. Alternatively, statements in the original that cannot be Canadianized may be specifically identified as non-Canadian, or they may be deleted if the point is not central.

Canadianizing is often about striking the right balance—changing just enough but not too much. In the case of corporate communications, the original text may have been vetted by the legal department, and the expectation is for changes to be kept to an absolute minimum. If in doubt, the editor should flag potential issues and query rather than changing them outright.

1.3.1 The Canadianizing author and editor

Increasingly, market considerations influence publishers to request more than minimal changes and the insertion of a multitude of Canadian examples. In the post-secondary textbook market, a Canadian author, generally a faculty member experienced in teaching the course in which the text would be used, is hired to adapt the material for the Canadian market. Because of the experience these adapting authors bring with them, they are not limited to just changing examples in order to make the content Canadian but are encouraged to make the book their own.

In the case of trade books and corporate publications, the new material is often written by an adapting editor, often the copy editor, who is responsible for researching and ensuring the accuracy of the changes. In these cases, the editors are often not given credit as authors, and they are not encouraged to make the publication their own.

1.3.2 The market

Before hiring the adapting author or editor, companies consider the potential market to determine what needs to be changed. It is generally understood that spelling, examples, and references to laws, regulations, and standards will need to be changed.

However, in the case of educational materials, a survey of the market will also determine whether the order and emphasis of topics is in line with average Canadian curriculum. This type of research can lead to a decision to eliminate or add a chapter, or to completely change the emphasis of one that will be retained.

1.4 The editorial role

While the traditional division of labour is outlined here (author’s work then structural edit followed by copy edit), it is worth noting that market demands are increasingly putting editors in the position of having to take on multiple editorial tasks, often simultaneously. It is not ideal for an editor to act as Canadianizing author, structural editor, and copy editor in a single pass, but such an arrangement is not unheard of.

1.4.1 Technical accuracy

The technical accuracy of a major adaptation will often need to be confirmed by experts in the field, whether the work being Canadianized is a textbook, trade book, or corporate communication. For example, a professor may be asked to review a textbook, a local botanist to review a gardening book, and an in-house expert to review a car manual. However, there are a number of areas that the publisher and editor should check to ensure that the Canadianization does not come across as a patch job:

If the adapting author or editor is not sensitive to the nuances of the original work, some of the new examples may not have the same effect as the ones they replace. Every example must be tested against its context to ensure that it in fact reinforces the point being made. An informed editor can often help by suggesting alternative examples to replace inappropriate or ineffective ones.

In an illustrated work, the adapter must be alert to foreign landmarks, customs, and situations in the original illustrations: the Union Jack on a desk, foreign currency, a gavel to represent justice or the law (since gavels are not used in Canadian courts). If the work is not a co-publication, new photographs should be substituted to reflect Canadian ethnic representation and Canadian social settings. In the case of a textbook or other educational materials, if a precisely parallel illustration is impossible to find, the inappropriate original should be deleted—it is often better to have no illustration than to keep a blatantly non-Canadian one in an educational context. In the case of a corporate publication, such as an owner’s manual, it is often not financially practical to have new photos taken, and generic photos are simply not suitable. In those situations, the adapting editor will often add a tagline to explain that the photos do not accurately represent the Canadian product (for example, a car’s speedometer showing miles per hour).

In educational materials containing a large number of fictitious names, special care must be taken to ensure that they, too, reflect Canadian ethnic representation, including francophone and Aboriginal groups. The predominance of Anglo-Saxon names in many American texts is increasingly unacceptable in the Canadian market. Ministries of education are particularly insistent that text and illustrations reflect the diverse ethnic mix and abilities (for example, a student in a wheelchair) of their student population, as well as a gender and age balance.

1.4.2 Structural editing

(a) In theory, the Canadianizing editor should not have to do much structural editing. Presumably the Canadian company chose to adapt the work because they thought the work had merit, so it is unlikely that they have scheduled time or budgeted for extensive changes. The process should be fast, as long as the original work was well edited. If it was not, the editor and publisher must come to an agreement as to how much the editor should tinker with the form and wording of the original.

(b) Editors Canadianizing corporate communications in particular should obtain very clear guidelines before carrying out any structural edits. These materials have often gone through numerous levels of review and approval, including legal reviews, and any substantive changes would be most unwelcome.

(c) The following outline of the structural editor’s main concerns applies mostly to textbooks and other educational materials. The editor of trade books or corporate materials should discuss with the publisher how much structural editing can be carried out and whether it should be a separate task. (Often it is not.)

Has the Canadianizing author followed changes through to their logical conclusion? It is very easy to recognize a problem area and make changes but then miss one or more of the less obvious corollaries, especially if they are buried insignificantly elsewhere in the work. American introductory business texts, for example, usually describe three forms of private business ownership, sole proprietorship, partnership, and corporation. In Canada, especially in the Prairie provinces, a fourth form, the cooperative, is important. Canadianizing authors usually recognize this element and modify the initial descriptions of forms of ownership, but they may miss allusions elsewhere in the text to, for example, the three forms of private ownership.

Have features particular to the Canadian situation been added? The author may concentrate so hard on Canadianizing the existing material that uniquely Canadian topics that should be covered are forgotten. For example, in a book from the U.K. about koi ponds, the Canadianization will require a larger and more detailed section on how to overwinter the animals because of our harsher climate.

Is the original structure still appropriate to the Canadian context? Different conditions may dictate different emphases, which in turn dictate a different ordering of the material and the downplaying or highlighting of different aspects. For example, an American economics text may have a substantial chapter about foreign exchange, in effect introducing the entire subject to readers who know little to nothing about it. For Canadian readers, however, foreign exchange is an unavoidable feature of business and personal life, and awareness of the basics can be assumed.

Are the Canadian examples truly parallel? Are the examples as strong as the original ones? Has too little effort—or too much—gone into substituting Canadian examples? It is foolish to substitute a Canadian incident that no one has heard of for George Washington and the cherry tree. In some cases, examples with an international aspect may be an improvement on both the original and the proposed Canadian substitutes.

Should elements be dropped or added? What if no parallel Canadian example can be found? If the original example must be cut, it may not be necessary to substitute a Canadian one; perhaps the material can survive without it. Material that should be cut is not limited to examples. Discussion that may be unnecessary in Canada (e.g., detailed definitions of the metric system or parliamentary democracy) should be dropped as well. Conversely, just because the original work did not offer an example of a certain subject does not mean that the Canadianization should not. Canada may offer a marvellous example where the original text had none.

Are underlying attitudes appropriate for Canadian readers? For example, is there an unconscious extolling of the American way of life at the expense of the rest of the world? Be aware, though, that Canadians have their fair share of North American insularity; do not replace one extreme with another.

1.4.3 Copy editing

Copy editing a Canadianization does not differ greatly from copy editing an original work. For example, the editor would still flag a suspect statement of fact. However, Canadianization can lead to certain inconsistencies that may require special attention. In the case of trade books and corporate materials, an editor who is asked to copy edit a Canadianization should clarify whether the client does in fact require the copy editor to carry out the full Canadianization and what level of adaptation is required.

1.4.3.1 Writing style

In the adaptation of the text, the adapting author or editor may have replaced whole sections of prose with entirely new material yet retained other sections with only the spelling changed. The copy editor must address any inconsistencies in writing style across this material. Is the phrasing conspicuously more complex in some paragraphs? Does the vocabulary level vary?

1.4.3.2 Spelling and punctuation

(a) The copy editor must verify the spelling convention that is to be used in the adaptation. Guidelines of provincial ministries of education may restrict the choice for some books, and many Canadian trade publishers opt for American spelling in order to appeal to the larger American audience. Generally, the adapting author or editor is expected to follow decided-upon conventions when reworking passages or writing new ones. However, even if the adapting author did make changes to a paragraph, it may still follow the foreign spelling. Alternatively, there may be no remnants of the foreign spelling because the author made global changes—including inappropriate ones, such as changing the spelling of official names (U.S. Department of Labour). In general, use the find-and-replace function with caution. Spellings of proper nouns must be kept intact.

(b) Punctuation may be more inconsistent in an adaptation than in most single-author works. The copy editor must ensure that the style of punctuation and the format for lists, tables, extracts, footnotes, endnotes, captions, and so on are consistent throughout. In the case of a corporate communication that has already been approved by the legal department, the editor should confirm whether it is acceptable to make such changes.

1.4.3.3 Terminology

(a) The use of some terms and idioms is determined by regulations; the use of others is determined by convention. For instance, in the United States, the owners of companies are known as stockholders, whereas in Canada they are called shareholders. Canadians vote in ridings (or constituencies) and nibble on chocolate bars, while Americans vote in electoral districts and snack on candy bars. Canadians write exams, Americans take them, and Britons sit them. Normally the Canadianizing author can be expected to be familiar with the relevant usages, but the copy editor must have a mastery of Canadian usage and ensure that all foreign terms and idioms are localized

(b) The most common forms of nationally regulated terms are currency and standards of measurement. Works originally published in the United States are likely to use the U.S. system of measurement (loosely related to, but not entirely the same as, the British imperial system). For Canadian textbooks, the adapting author or editor must convert the U.S. measures to the SI/metric units of measurement (see chapter 8, Measurements). For trade books, the decision on which system of measurement to use is generally made on a book-by-book basis, and the choice may even be for a mix of the two (for example, metric for distance but U.S. measures for heights and weights).

1.5 Rights—and wrongs

Various copyright holders are likely involved in a text requiring Canadianization. Their work must be acknowledged and respected.

1.5.1 The authors in an adaptation

Canadianization may be undertaken by a Canadian subsidiary of the company that produced the work or may be done by a publisher that has bought Canadian or North American rights to a foreign work. The author of the original work may not be available for consultation and may not even be aware that an adapted version is being prepared. Legally, the original publisher’s author agreement often gives it the right to produce foreign editions or to sell that right. Ethically, though, the publisher may be on questionable ground. If the author’s examples are an integral part of the work, changing them may destroy the essence of the work. The original authors may find that a book issued in Canada with their names on the cover contains ideas that they consider distasteful or untenable. The integrity of the original author’s work and intent should always be considered when adapting a work for Canadian readers.

1.5.2 Copyright information

Copyright information should show the history of both the original book and the adaptation:

© 2009, 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

In the event of a co-publication, there will likely be only the one copyright date, and the packager is often the rights holder:

© 2014 Quarto Publishing p.l.c.

1.5.3 Permissions

The original work may contain material quoted or reproduced from other sources, as well as artwork (which may include charts, graphs, or infographics) or photographs. The editor should not assume that the permissions granted for the original edition will cover the Canadian adaptation; the contracts for the original work and for the adaptation will specify permissions liability, which can vary greatly from work to work. Each permission letter must be checked to verify that it covers editions other than the original; many or all of the permissions may have to be cleared for the Canadian edition of the book. When it comes to permissions, an editor should never assume anything. For a discussion of seeking permissions, see 10.3.12.

1.5.4 Credits

Any change to the book’s title should be noted (e.g., "Originally published in the United States as What a Great Book" ) on the copyright page, as should credits for a newly designed cover and/or interior. Credits for any new photos, illustrations, or other artwork will also need to be added. In the case of a full Canadianization with a new author, the new author will almost certainly be given credit on the cover. (Editors who make extensive rewrites, however, are not usually given credit as an author or co-author.)

2 Inclusivity

2.1 Principles to consider

2.2 Ethnicity and race

2.3 Gender

2.4 Sexual orientation

2.5 Disability

2.6 Plain language

2.7 For further reading

2.1 Principles to consider

2.1.1 Stereotyped portrayals

2.1.2 Overgeneralizations

2.1.3 Irrelevant reference

2.1.4 Condescension

2.1.5 Unbalanced juxtaposition

2.1.6 Hypersensitivity

Canadian society changes over time, and so does the vocabulary that Canadians find acceptable in reflecting our diversity.

Today, most Canadians readily use the term Inuit rather than Eskimo, because the Inuit of Canada’s North have said it’s the term they prefer. Back in the 1950s, a flight attendant was dubbed a stewardess. That was before men began doing a job that had been reserved only for single women. But is gender-neutral language a battle feminists have won? You would have to answer no when you hear adult Canadians still referring to the mailman who may, in fact, be a woman whose job title is letter carrier.

It isn’t the editor’s job to set standards for inclusive, non-racist, and non-stereotyped use of language. It is, however, the editor’s job to ensure that bias does not creep into the text. Why? Because bias sometimes distorts facts and often fails to recognize the right to equal treatment inherent in the country’s Charter of Rights and Freedoms and provincial human rights legislation.

The suggestions in this chapter point to ways to avoid expressions that are insensitive or offensive and thus support bias. We have focused on four specific areas: ethnicity and race; gender; sexual orientation; and disability. In addition to these, the chapter looks at how plain language supports a style of writing that is more inclusive.

As with so many other aspects of editing, context (the author’s point of view, the purpose of the text, and the audience) will influence an editor’s decisions. Editors should use judgment and discretion—in consultation with the author and publisher—to find the appropriate vocabulary for that context. What may be acceptable in fiction may be unacceptable on the website of a national news organization. In taking on this challenge, be aware that within specialized fields and in the area of human rights, terminology may be highly specific and unlike that in general use. This is when editors would be wise to consult the agencies and organizations knowledgeable in those fields.

2.1.1 Stereotyped portrayals

Avoid any hackneyed phrases or words to describe members of a particular group—thoughtless teenagers; ignorant peasants; flamboyant homosexuals. All stereotypes can be damaging. Do not categorize groups of people as helpless, oppressed victims (fragile seniors; plucky survivors of domestic violence). Doing so makes it seem they are unable to act as adults who can manage their own lives. In photographs, drawings, and captions, the repeated portrayal of individuals or groups in a particular way also stereotypes them.

2.1.2 Overgeneralizations

Watch for sweeping statements that attribute certain qualities to all members of a particular group.

✗ Hungarians are a proud people, jealous of their honour. (All Hungarians? Day in and day out?)

Another aspect of overgeneralization is underspecification—sweeping statements that lump different groups in the same category.

✗ Canada’s black community still reflects the influence of British colonialism. (There isn’t a dominant black community in Canada comparable to that in the United States. Black Canadians born in Barbados, for example, share little cultural history with those of Somali, Haitian, or American descent.)

✗ Feminists oppose the hierarchical structures of the capitalist system. (Feminists hold a wide range of political views and economic interests.)

2.1.3 Irrelevant reference

Consider whether reference to a person’s race, sex, sexual orientation, marital status, number of children, age, ethnic affiliation, disability, personal appearance, and the like is relevant or a distraction.

✗ The lesbian business tycoon has just been named the new head of Western Utilities. (When professional achievement is the point, personal information may trivialize the accomplishment.)

✗ Ms. Robbins, who immigrated to Montreal from Jamaica when she was 25, was charged with abduction of an infant. (Referring to a person’s country of origin, race, culture, or religion in a context such as crime or social problems creates or reinforces negativity with respect to a particular group.)

2.1.4 Condescension

Watch for backhanded praise. It carries with it the assumption of lesser ability or achievement in the group being portrayed.

✗ Women are much better than men at repetitive, monotonous tasks. (This implies that they are less suited to complex, challenging tasks.)

✗ The Polynesian peoples have a natural gift for musical harmony. (A skill that people in one culture gain only through considerable knowledge and practice—such as musical, athletic, or speaking abilities—is no more natural in other people.)

2.1.5 Unbalanced juxtaposition

Two or more persons of equal significance to the story should not be identified differently or in a way that denies their equality.

✗ Dr. Luis Estevez and his associate, Martin Pereira, accepted their Nobel Prize. (If one individual is identified by an honorific, such as Dr., check that others equally entitled to it are similarly identified.)

✗ The plane last seen carrying Duluth Volvo dealer Fred Simpkins and an Indian guide was spotted north of Kenora. (If two people have identical roles—for example, as missing persons—they should be identified in parallel fashion.)

2.1.6 Hypersensitivity

Misguided zeal in correcting the errors listed above may lead to tokenism and new stereotypes. For example, pictures in a children’s book may include every possible type of family structure except the traditional nuclear.

2.2 Ethnicity and race

2.2.1 General terms

2.2.2 Specific terms

Colour, race, and culture may invite overgeneralizations. Understanding the nuances of meaning for each term can be helpful.

2.2.1 General terms

(a) The term race should be used with great caution. The word commonly refers to a category of people that the user identifies as having similar visible physical characteristics and geographical origins. Race is wrongly used to account for the behaviour, attitudes, and abilities of groups or individuals. In the field of race relations, race has a specific meaning more akin to ethnicity, as generally used.

(b) An ethnic group is the group that individuals are identified with, or identify themselves with, based on cultural characteristics associated with a common origin. Every Canadian has at least one ethnic origin, although not all Canadians identify themselves strongly with a particular ethnic group. Use the term ethnic carefully. It does not mean not of the mainstream, where the mainstream may, in fact, be an assumption rather than a reality. Ethnic groups are also referred to as minority groups even though not all minority groups in Canada are ethnic groups (e.g., Mormons), and ethnic groups are not always minorities (e.g., the French in Quebec). Note that ethnic is an adjective, not a noun.

(c) The term visible minority usually refers to people who are not of European origin in a context where those of European origin are assumed to be in the majority. Yet visibility depends on the perspective, and geography, of the viewer: Jews may be visible in rural Saskatchewan but invisible in downtown Montreal. What about the fact that First Nations peoples are a majority population group in the North? Would it be appropriate to refer to Canadians of other ethnic backgrounds in Yellowknife, for example, using the term? Some people might argue that the term minority is unsatisfactory because it implies that any minority matters less than the majority. Be alert to the implications of using this term.

2.2.2 Specific terms

(a) The Guide to Canadian English Usage (2nd ed.) is but one source advising that terms of the type discussed below should be adjectives rather than nouns: for example, instead of blacks or natives, use a general phrase such as black people (or a more specific noun, such as citizens, residents, students, etc.) or native people (or representatives, youth, councillors, etc.).

(b) On the tricky question of capitalization, some guides recommend that aboriginal, native, indigenous, black, and the like be capitalized, as would terms like Asian, Hispanic, and Nordic. Other guides, such as those of The Globe and Mail and Canadian Press, keep them lowercase. The editor’s choice will (as always) be influenced by context. For example, white is rarely capitalized;