The Lexham English Septuagint: A New Translation

By Lexham Press

A fresh translation of the Septuagint.

The Lexham English Septuagint (LES) is a new translation of the Septuagint, the Greek version of the Old Testament writings used during New Testament times and in the early church. Beautifully typeset in a comfortable, single-column format, the LES provides a literal, readable, and transparent English edition of the Septuagint for modern readers. Retaining the familiar forms of personal names and places, the LES gives readers the ability to read it alongside their favored English Bible. Translated directly from Swete's edition of the Septuagint, the LES maintains the meaning of the original text, making the Septuagint accessible to readers today.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Lexham Press
• Release date: Jan 15, 2020
• ISBN: 9781683593454

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The

LEXHAM ENGLISH SEPTUAGINT

A New Translation

Second Edition

Copyright 2019 Lexham Press

Lexham Press, 1313 Commercial St., Bellingham, WA 98225

LexhamPress.com

All rights reserved. You may use brief quotations from this content in presentations, books, and articles. For all other uses, please write Lexham Press for permission. Email us at [e-mail].

Print ISBN 9781683593447

Digital ISBN 9781683593454

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019949157

General Editor: Ken M. Penner

Managing Editor: Rick Brannan

Contributing Editors: Israel Loken, Michael Aubrey, Isaiah Hoogendyk

Production Editors: David Bomar, Matthew Boffey, Douglas Mangum, Elliot Ritzema, Abigail Stocker, Jessi Strong, Mark L. Ward Jr.

Copy Editors: Todd R. Hains, Jesse Myers, Karen Engle, Allisyn Ma, Steven E. Runge, Derek R. Brown

Cover Design: George Siler

CONTENTS

Acknowledgments

Introduction

Septuagint Resources

Genesis

Exodus

Leviticus

Numbers

Deuteronomy

Joshua

Judges

Ruth

1 Kingdoms

2 Kingdoms

3 Kingdoms

4 Kingdoms

1 Chronicles

2 Chronicles

Esdras A

Esdras B

Psalms

Proverbs

Ecclesiastes

Song of Songs

Job

Wisdom of Solomon

Wisdom of Sirach

Esther

Judith

Tobit

Hosea

Amos

Micah

Joel

Obadiah

Jonah

Nahum

Habakkuk

Zephaniah

Haggai

Zechariah

Malachi

Isaiah

Jeremiah

Baruch

Lamentations of Jeremiah

Epistle of Jeremiah

Ezekiel

Daniel

Susanna

Bel and the Dragon

1 Maccabees

2 Maccabees

3 Maccabees

4 Maccabees

Psalms of Solomon

Enoch

Odes

Tobit—Alternate Text

Daniel—Alternate Text

Susanna—Alternate Text

Bel and the Dragon—Alternate Text

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Lexham English Septuagint is a new translation based on the Lexham Greek-English Interlinear Septuagint, which was produced independently.

The Lexham Greek-English Interlinear Septuagint was edited by Randall Tan with contributions from Sean Adams, Hans Arneson, Michael Aubrey, John Byron, Gene Carpenter, Daniel deSilva, Bruce Fiske, Nijay K. Gupta, James Harland, Michael S. Heiser, Rick Hess, Todd Hibbard, Roy Jeal, Clayton Jefford, Fred Long, Tim McLay, David M. Moffitt, Russell Morton, B.J. Oropeza, Paul Overland, Ken M. Penner, Andrew W. Pitts, Emerson Powery, Peter Prestel, Stefan Scorch, Beth Sheppard, Anthony Tomasino, Wesley Wachob, Charles Wanamaker, Glenn Wooden, and Kent Yinger. Isaiah Hoogendyk’s additional editorial contributions to the interlinear were helpful and timely.

The Lexham English Septuagint first edition benefited greatly from the copy editing assistance of Rebecca Brant, Elizabeth Vince, and Jennifer Hendrix.

The second edition of the Lexham English Septuagint was revised with the assistance of Benjamin Pass and Christine Welles from Acadia Divinity College and Dustin King from St. Francis Xavier University.

The Editors

INTRODUCTION

What is the Septuagint?

The collection of compositions commonly known as the Septuagint is an ancient translation of the Hebrew Bible, the Jewish Scriptures, into Greek. Although there are many English translations of the Bible, only a few English translations of the Septuagint exist. Most English translations of what Protestant Christians call the Old Testament are translations from Hebrew and Aramaic, because these are the languages in which these books of the Bible were originally written. By contrast, the Septuagint is, for the most part, itself a translation of these Hebrew and Aramaic biblical books into Greek.

And yet, the Septuagint itself should be studied—and therefore translated—because of the important role it plays in biblical studies. More often than not, when the New Testament writers quote the Jewish Scriptures, they quote the Septuagint. Other early Christian literature does the same, including the apostolic fathers, post-New Testament extracanonical material, and later patristic writings. Not only is it likely that the Septuagint was the Bible of the apostle Paul, it was probably also the one consulted by Josephus, Clement of Rome, Clement of Alexandria, and perhaps even John Chrysostom.

The Origins of the Septuagint

The pseudepigraphal Letter of Aristeas contains a legend of the miraculous completion of the Septuagint translation of the Pentateuch into Greek. This legend pointed to a committee of seventy-two translators, and it is the basis for the title we use today. The Latin word for seventy is septuaginta. (The common abbreviation for the Septuagint is 70 given in Roman numerals: LXX.) Still today, writers will refer to the Septuagint’s translators as the seventy. Legend has it that all the translators sat down separately to translate the entire Hebrew Bible, and they emerged with precisely identical translations. It has clearly always been a concern of believers that their translations be accurate, and the story of the seventy is an appeal to miraculous divine providence as a guarantee for accuracy.

The reality, however, is that the various books of the LXX were translated by various people over several centuries, beginning in the third century BCE. We know next to nothing about these translators, but we do still have their work. They translated not just the canonical Hebrew Bible but also several other books, often called apocryphal or deuterocanonical (though they are accepted in some Christian traditions). There is even some noncanonical material present in what we now call the Septuagint—4 Maccabees and the Psalms of Solomon—because it is present in some of the oldest Greek biblical manuscripts.

Because the books of the Hebrew Bible were translated by different people at different times, the Septuagint is not so much a single, uniform document as it is a compilation of translations, each of differing quality and philosophy. Some are relatively literal, translating word for word; others are fairly dynamic, translating phrase for phrase or idea for idea. Some translate similar Hebrew terminology in different ways. The LXX also includes some documents that appear to have been composed originally in Greek. So any translation of this body of literature, itself (largely but not entirely) a translation, will end up being diverse.

Translations of the Septuagint

Today there are only three English translations of the Septuagint that are widely available in print. One is the work of a single man, Lancelot Charles Lee Brenton, dating back to the middle of the nineteenth century. Another translation is found in the Orthodox Study Bible, published in 2008 by Thomas Nelson. The third is the New English Translation of the Septuagint (NETS), produced by a committee of Septuagint scholars and published by Oxford University Press in 2007, with a revision in 2009.

Each of these works has particular strengths and weaknesses.

•Brenton’s translation is simply dated, and in two respects: its textual basis does not reflect more recent discoveries of Septuagint manuscripts, and it relies on older views of the meanings of certain Greek words.

•The NETS is up to date with regard to these two issues, and it seeks a careful transparency to the Greek. But the NETS editors decided to transliterate rather than translate many proper names that are familiar to English readers. David is Dauid, Joshua is Iesous. This policy is helpful for certain readers in very specific circumstances, but it makes following the narrative more difficult for others. Also, in order to reflect that the Septuagint is subservient to the Hebrew text, the NETS was designed to be subservient to an English translation. But this means that rather than being an original translation from the Greek, the NETS is a modified NRSV.

•Similarly, as its translation of Psalm 22:5 (23:5 in Hebrew) shows, the Orthodox Study Bible is a revision of the NKJV that draws some vocabulary from Brenton’s translation.

The Lexham English Septuagint (LES), then, is the only contemporary English translation of the LXX that has been made directly from the Greek. It is not our goal to supplant any of these earlier translations. But just as those who use English translations in their study of the Bible find that insight and understanding of a given passage can be enhanced by comparing translations, our desire is that the LES would be one of the primary English translations of the Septuagint consulted in one’s study of the Jewish Scriptures, of apocryphal/deuterocanonical literature, and even of the New Testament and patristic literature.

In languages other than English, the Septuagint has recently been translated into German as Septuaginta Deutsch (LXX-D) from 1999–2008. A Spanish translation, La Biblia griega, was published in four volumes from 2008 to 2015. A French translation project, La Bible d’Alexandrie, was started in 1986 with a volume on Genesis and is now nearing completion.

Textual Basis and Critical Editions of the Septuagint

There are two main types of editions of original language texts: eclectic and diplomatic. An eclectic edition attempts to recreate the earliest form of the text based on available manuscript evidence and text-critical principles. It represents no single manuscript but uses the best readings from all available manuscripts in an effort to represent a form of the text that best explains how the alternate readings came about. Many eclectic editions have a textual apparatus that lists evidence for the reading adopted in the text as well as for the variant readings. For the New Testament, the Nestle-Aland family of printed Greek New Testaments provide examples of eclectic editions. For the Septuagint, Alfred Rahlfs’s edition (1935) and the still in-progress Göttingen editions are the available eclectic editions. In eclectic editions, the editor makes a decision regarding the original text for each word. Eclectic editions include a textual apparatus at the bottom of each page listing variant readings from other manuscripts. Rahlfs used only a handful of manuscripts when producing his edition, while the Göttingen editions aim to be comprehensive, listing every variant in all available manuscripts.

A diplomatic edition of an original language text, by contrast, is a transcription of a single manuscript in its entirety, supplemented from other manuscripts only when content is missing from that primary manuscript. Diplomatic editions may also offer an apparatus of variant readings, but they do not indicate which reading is considered better or preferred. H. B. Swete’s edition of the Septuagint, The Old Testament in Greek: According to the Septuagint, is an example of a diplomatic edition. For the most part, it provides the text found in Codex Vaticanus (which is also an important witness to the text of the Greek New Testament). Where Vaticanus is missing material, the text comes from comparable manuscripts such as the Codex Alexandrinus and the Codex Sinaiticus. Swete’s edition also provides an apparatus listing significant variations found in other major manuscripts.

The LES is a translation of Swete’s edition, the best diplomatic edition of the Septuagint that contains an apparatus of variant readings. For most books, Codex Vaticanus is generally of better quality (fewer errors) than other manuscripts, so for a diplomatic text, Swete chose his primary manuscript well. The fact that the LES is based on a diplomatic edition carries some implications for the translation style of the LES—because in a diplomatic edition the text represents an actual manuscript rather than a hypothetical original text. In the case of the LES, this means the point of reference is the person reading that Greek manuscript, rather than the person translating the Hebrew into Greek. In other words, the LES has in mind the translation not as produced, but as received. The LES seeks to replicate in English the same sort of reading experience that an ancient Greek speaker would have had when reading the Septuagint in Codex Vaticanus.

One textual issue that requires explanation is the presence of alternative texts. These appear for two distinct reasons. First, the book of Tobit appears in two versions because the text of one of the oldest manuscripts (Codex Sinaiticus) is so different from that of the other two oldest manuscripts (Codex Vaticanus and Codex Alexandrinus) that it would have been cumbersome to point out each of the differences in the usual way, in the critical apparatus. Instead, Swete opted to print the Sinaiticus version of Tobit separately. Correspondingly, in the LES both versions of Tobit are translated separately, with the Sinaiticus version as the Alternate Text. Second, the book of Daniel appears under the label Alternate Texts because of the reception history of the multiple translations of the Bible into Greek. The Septuagint (i.e., the translation attributed to the seventy translators) was not the only translation of the Jewish Scriptures into Greek in ancient times. Other translations appeared within a few centuries, translations attributed to Theodotion, Aquila, and Symmachus. In the case of the book of Daniel (with its additions Susanna and Bel and the Dragon), the older LXX translation actually fell out of favor among early Christians; in its place the translation of Theodotion began appearing in manuscripts of the Bible. Because this Theodotionic version of Daniel was so popular in biblical interpretation, Swete decided to print it alongside the LXX version of Daniel, and in the LES it is therefore included as an Alternate Text.

The History of the LES

The LES began as an interlinear edition of the Lexham Greek-English Interlinear Septuagint, which was edited under the leadership of Randall Tan. A diverse and talented group of translators created this original interlinear edition, upon which the LES is based.¹ Rick Brannan initiated a project to take the material from this interlinear and use it as the initial basis for a translation. He wrote a program to reassemble, as much as possible, the interlinear lines into English word order.² He invited Michael Aubrey, Isaiah Hoogendyk, Israel Loken, and Ken M. Penner to serve with him as contributing editors and supplied them with this machine-generated text to edit (in consultation with the Greek text, of course) into readable English. Each of these translators was responsible for a book or a group of books. These individual interlinear translations formed the original basis of the LES. The degree to which each of the contributing editors is responsible for the LES translation of their allotment depends on how much work the Lexham Greek-English Interlinear Septuagint for those books needed in order to become readable English. The amount of work varied, and the result is that the wording of some books of the interlinear is retained more than others. The goal of the LES was to transparently match the interlinear as much as possible; still, some books required an almost entirely new translation by the LES translator.

Brannan then reviewed and edited this English translation to meet basic guidelines established for the translation. Each of the editors’ submissions was further reviewed and then copy edited into a transparent, literal translation of the Septuagint, which was originally available only as a resource for Logos Bible Software.

Over the next several years, small mistakes were discovered and shortcomings identified, yet the LES continued to grow in popularity to the point that it was considered feasible to publish the translation for a print readership. Ken M. Penner was invited to reedit the LES with a view to publishing the LES as a print volume.

Translation Principles

Because the LES is intended to correspond to the Lexham Greek-English Interlinear Septuagint, the translation style of the LES is largely controlled by that resource. It is formal (or literal): it has a strong transparent connection to the Greek, because it is derived from an interlinear.

The second edition of the LES makes more of an effort than the first to focus on the text as received rather than as produced. Because this approach shifts the point of reference from a diverse group to a single implied reader, the new LES exhibits more consistency than the (multieditor) first edition. Every effort was made to render the Greek in its own right, with no eye to the Hebrew at all. The LES is an attempt to answer the question, How would this text have been read—understood and experienced—by a fourth century, Greek-speaking gentile Christian? This implied reader’s knowledge of Hebrew and Jewish customs is restricted to what could be learned from the Greek Scriptures and by observing fourth-century Jews in the Greco-Roman world.

The English translation should feel idiomatic where the Greek is idiomatic. It should feel formal where the Greek is formal. It should feel foreign where the Greek feels foreign. In other words, it is not only acceptable, it is positively desirable for the LES to feel like a translation, to the extent that Greek readers would have been aware that they were reading a translation. Ideally, the translation should be as rough or as smooth as the Greek would have seemed to a Greek reader who knew no Hebrew. Sometimes in Ecclesiastes this meant translating some rather unconventional uses of συν (sun) into awkward English. Sometimes it meant that phrases that were idiomatic in Hebrew but not in Greek—such as prepositional expressions using body parts—were translated literally into English just as they were into Greek. In cases where periphrastic prepositions involving πρόσωπον (prosopon) were idiomatic Greek, an idiomatic English translation appears in the text. But since (according to Muraoka’s Syntax) they are Hebraisms, the foreign feel was retained by translating literally. Never in nonbiblical Greek does πρόσωπον mean presence (at least not in any way not also covered by face in English), so it should not be so translated in English. Greek readers were able to make sense of these foreign-sounding expressions, and English readers can, too. Most commonly, this principle meant that Greek καί (kai) should almost always be and. A Greek reader would be struck by the lack of variety in conjunctions; to produce a similar effect in English, καί as a conjunction should consistently be and rather than so or then or but—as much as possible without changing the sense. On the other hand, where the Greek style was typical, as in most of the books of the Maccabees, the English of the LES is idiomatic as well. Where a phrase would have sounded formulaic but not foreign—such as τάδε εἶπεν/λέγει (tade eipen/legei)—to a Greek reader, it is rendered in equally formulaic English: hence the translation thus said/says.

Vocabulary

Because the first edition of the LES began with dozens of individual translators working on individual books, and because it was edited in the same way—one book at a time, by five editors—there were places where a phrase or term was not consistently translated across the whole of the LES. For example, one translator might have rendered ἔλεος as pity and the others as mercy. The second edition of the LES makes more of an effort to focus on the text as received rather than as produced and therefore exhibits some effort to establish lexical consistency, especially where inconsistency in English word choice obscured verbal connections within or between passages—or semantic associations that would have occurred to the ancient Greek reader.

We were guided by the principle that if the Greek is smooth and represents good Greek style, then the English equivalent should convey that style, and that the English should be awkward if the Greek is awkward. Applying this guiding translation principle to vocabulary prompted two guidelines. (1) Where the Greek has a common word, use a common English word; where the Greek has unusual (one might say marked) vocabulary, use similarly unusual English diction. (2) Make it possible to notice the same verbal connections that a Greek reader would, both within a passage and between passages. Where words are cognate in Greek (such as nouns and verbs from the same root) they should also be cognate in English. Conversely, because an English reader might infer that a certain Greek word lies behind each instance of a certain English gloss, we sought consistency in both directions. For example, εἶπον should never be replied rather than said, because the English reader might infer a different Greek word if replied were used.

In choosing that preferred consistent gloss, we took four points into consideration: (1) how this word is translated in the rest of the LES; (2) the range of meaning in (primarily older) nonbiblical Greek (using classical lexica); (3) the range of meanings that would occur to a fourth-century Christian reader (using lexica of patristic Greek); (4) preserving distinctions among words with semantic overlap (using Muraoka’s lists at the end of an entry, for example, because the alternatives to φυλάσσω [phulasso] are τηρέω [tereo, keep], εὐλαβέομαι [eulabeomai, beware, fear], and σκοπεύω [skopeuo, keep watch], keep is an inappropriate gloss for for φυλάσσω).

Yet we did not seek a forced lexical consistency that ignores context. Instead, we prefer some lexical flexibility to suit the context. For example, because λέγω/εἶπον (lego/eipon) with the dative is smooth Greek, in English tell/told is a suitable rendering; it retains that smoothness. There will be some necessary variation because of context, such as ψυχη (psuche) as soul and life, even though ζωη (zoe) is also life. In a few cases, none of the formally equivalent English glosses would have produced the same effect as the Greek word. One such example is οὐρανός (ouranos). Sky and heaven would both seem to be candidates, but neither is adequate because οὐρανός connoted a divine realm, whereas in current English sky has only physical connotations. On the other hand, heaven as used in contemporary English is almost exclusively about postmortem rewards, which were not at all implied by οὐρανός. Consequently, the preferred English equivalent is the heavens despite the grammatical mismatch in number.

The shift from the third-second century BCE Alexandria (LXX as produced) to the fourth century Christianizing Roman Empire (the time Codex Vaticanus was first read) did not yield many cases in which the semantic range of a word had changed so much as to warrant a different translation. But in those cases in which the meaning had evolved (mainly due to the influence of the New Testament), the meaning at the time of reception would take precedence. Examples include a shift from wind to spirit and from maiden to virgin.

Gender

With regard to gender issues in translation, the LES strives to translate as literally as possible, in a contextually appropriate manner, using terminology that is widely acceptable. The goal is contextually appropriate semantics more than gender-inclusive wording. Perhaps the most notable example is the phrase sons of as a translation for a generic people group such as Israel. In such instances, the first edition of the LES had children of Israel instead of sons of Israel, and for people groups other than Israel, descendants of was used in place of sons of. In each such instance, a note was included indicating the alternate translation sons of. This second edition has eliminated these footnotes and consistently uses the translation sons of. This policy rests on the observation that the Greek word υἱός (huios)—translated sons—almost never refers to both genders; rather it is used when sons is contrasted with daughters. When both genders were intended, a Greek writer would specify sons and daughters. Similarly, although the first edition of the LES sometimes translated the Greek word for fathers with the gender-inclusive ancestors when the context suggested earlier generations, the second edition uses fathers more consistently, on the basis of Greek usage. These translation equivalents bring today’s reader to the ancient culture rather than the reverse.

By contrast, a different situation pertains to the Greek words for man and humanity. Greek has both a gender-specific word for man and a gender-inclusive word for humans or people: ἄνθρωπος (anthropos). Only very rarely is ἄνθρωπος contrasted with woman. Therefore the LES translates ἄνθρωπος as humanity, human, people, or person unless the context is referring to a specific person, as when calling someone an ἄνθρωπος of God. Translating this phrase as a person of or human of God would yield awkward English where there was normal Greek. In such cases, man or woman is preferable in order not to distort the impression that would have been made on the ancient Greek reader.

Proper Nouns

A longstanding issue in Septuagint studies has been how to render Septuagint names in English. Hatch and Redpath, to their credit, include an appendix of more than 160 pages with listings of Greek proper names, their instances, and their Hebrew equivalents where available.³ This appendix is the best resource available today on proper nouns in the Septuagint.

Recent Greek-English lexicons of the Septuagint largely skip over the problem. Regarding the inclusion of proper nouns in their lexicon, Lust, Eynikel, and Hauspie note, Proper names are included only when they are a transliteration of Hebrew words that are common nouns.⁴ Muraoka does not mention proper nouns in his front matter,⁵ and he seems to include only the most common proper nouns (e.g., Μωϋσῆς, Moses) in the body of his lexicon. This means that outside of Hatch and Redpath, one of the best references to consult regarding names in the Septuagint is actually a lexicon of New Testament Greek, BDAG,⁶ which has entries for names that occur in the New Testament, many of which also occur in the Septuagint.

The NETS tends to render Greek names by transliteration. They describe their method:

Names have been treated in essentially two ways: (1) as translations of Hebrew (or Aramaic), i.e., names in general use in the Hellenistic world apart from the LXX, and (2) as transcriptions of Hebrew (or Aramaic), i.e., names produced de novo from the source language. The former have been given their standard equivalent in English (e.g. Egypt and Syria) while the latter appear in English transcription (e.g. Dauid and Salomon).⁷

This is a straightforward and consistent solution that is faithful to NETS’ underlying method, but this solution creates difficulties for those whose primary familiarity with the Old Testament material is through English translations of the Hebrew Bible. Although some transliterations are easy enough to recognize (such as Ieremias, Jeremiah), others don’t correlate in ways readily obvious to all readers (such as Selo, Shiloh), and some are possibly confusing (such as Iesous, Joshua). Names are difficult enough to track in English translations of the Hebrew Bible; when they are rendered in an English transliteration of their Greek form, some names become virtually impossible to identify. Therefore, where possible the LES uses the common English form of the related Hebrew proper noun to render the Greek form of that noun: it translates rather than transliterates. For the apocryphal/deuterocanonical books of the Septuagint that have no underlying Hebrew, LES uses the NRSV to maintain consistency among names. Only in cases where no direct link could be established with the Hebrew does the LES use a transliterated form of the name. The result is that the text, for the most part, uses recognizable and familiar forms of names for people, places, and people groups.

The first edition of the LES included the transliterated forms⁸ of Greek proper names as footnotes so that scholars and students could have access to the Greek forms. Such footnotes were not cumbersome in a digital publication, but because the second edition was prepared for print publication, these footnotes have been omitted from the second edition.

Conclusion

In the introduction to his lexicon of the Septuagint, Takamitsu Muraoka wrote:

Following a series of exploratory studies and debates, we have come to the conclusion that we had best read the Septuagint as a Greek document and try to find out what sense a reader in a period roughly 250 B.C.–100 A.D. who was ignorant of Hebrew or Aramaic might have made of the translation, although we did compare the two texts all along.⁹

Muraoka’s conclusion is sensible and sums up the overall approach followed during the translation and editorial phases of work on the LES. The Septuagint is treated and understood as a Greek document, and it is translated with the desire to allow English readers to read the Greek document. Although it may be helpful to consult the underlying Hebrew and Aramaic texts—particularly when the Greek text is difficult to understand—we must remember that the Septuagint was a Greek document, written so that Greek speakers and readers who knew little or nothing of Hebrew could read and hear the writings of the Hebrew Bible in their native tongue.

People have been translating the Scriptures into their own native tongues ever since. We trust you will find this translation of the Septuagint useful in your studies.

And may God do good to you and remember his covenant that he made with Abraham and Isaac and Jacob, his faithful servants. And may he grant you all a heart for everything to worship him and do his will with a strong heart and a willing soul. (2 Maccabees 1:2–3 LES)

Ken M. Penner and Rick Brannan

July 2019

SEPTUAGINT RESOURCES

What follows is a selective bibliography of books useful as starting points when working with the Septuagint.

Aitken, James K., ed. The T&T Clark Companion to the Septuagint. London: T&T Clark, 2015.

Alexander, Patrick H., Society of Biblical Literature, and Shirley Decker-Lucke. The SBL Handbook of Style: For Ancient Near Eastern, Biblical, and Early Christian Studies. Hendrickson, 1999.

Bauer, Walter. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 3rd Edition. Edited by Frederick William Danker. 3rd ed. University of Chicago Press, 2001.

Brenton, Lancelot Charles Lee. The Septuagint Version of the Old Testament: English Translation. London: Samuel Bagster and Sons, 1870.

Chamberlain, Gary Alan, ed. The Greek of the Septuagint: A Supplemental Lexicon. Hendrickson, 2011.

Brock, Sebastian P., Charles T. Fritsch, and Sidney Jellicoe. A Classified Bibliography of the Septuagint. Arbeiten zur Literatur und Geschichte des Hellenistischen Judentums. Leiden: Brill, 1973.

Dines, Jennifer Mary, and Michael Anthony Knibb. The Septuagint. London: Continuum, 2004.

Dogniez, Cécile. Bibliographie de la Septante, 1970–1993. Leiden: Brill, 1995.

Fernández Marcos, Natalio. The Septuagint in Context: Introduction to the Greek Version of the Bible. Leiden: Brill, 2000.

Hatch, Edwin, and Henry A. Redpath. A Concordance to the Septuagint: And the Other Greek Versions of the Old Testament. Baker Academic, 2005.

Jobes, Karen H, and Jesse Arlen. Discovering the Septuagint: A Guided Reader. Grand Rapids: Kregel Publications, 2016.

Jobes, Karen, and Moisés Silva. Invitation to the Septuagint. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2000.

Law, T. M. When God Spoke Greek: The Septuagint and the Making of the Christian Bible. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.

Liddell, Henry George, Robert Scott, Henry Stuart Jones, and Roderick McKenzie. A Greek-English Lexicon. Rev. and augm. Oxford: Clarendon Press; Oxford University Press, 1996.

Lust, Johan, Erik Eynikel, and Katrin Hauspie. Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint. Rev. Blg. Hendrickson, 2008.

Muraoka, T. A Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint. Peeters, 2010.

Muraoka, T. A Syntax of Septuagint Greek. Peeters, 2016.

Pietersma, Albert, and Benjamin G. Wright, eds. A New English Translation of the Septuagint. Oxford University Press, USA, 2007.

Rahlfs, Alfred, and Robert Hanhart, eds. Septuaginta. Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2006.

Taylor, Bernard A. Analytical Lexicon to the Septuagint. Expanded ed. Hendrickson, 2009.

The Orthodox Study Bible: Ancient Christianity Speaks to Today’s World. Annotated ed. Thomas Nelson, 2008.

GENESIS

The Beginning

1 In the beginning, God made the heavens and the earth. ² But the earth was unseen and unprepared, and darkness was upon the deep. And the spirit of God rushed upon the water. ³ And God said, Let light come into being. And light came into being. ⁴ And God saw the light, that it was good. And God made a separation between the light and the darkness. ⁵ And God named the light day and the darkness he named night. And there was evening, and there was morning, the first day.

⁶ And God said, Let a firmament come into being in the midst of the water, and let a separator be in the midst of the water.a And so it happened. ⁷ And God made the firmament, and God made a separation in the midst of the water that was under the firmament and in the midst of the water that was upon the firmament. ⁸ And God named the firmament heaven.b And God saw that it was good. And there was evening, and there was morning, the second day.

⁹ And God said, Let the water that is under the heavens be gathered together into one assembly, and let the dryness appear. And so it happened. And the water under the heavens was brought together into their assembly, and the dryness appeared. ¹⁰ And God named the dryness earth, and the assemblies of the waters he named seas. And God saw that it was good. ¹¹ And God said, Let the earth sprout fodder plants, sowing seed according to kind and according to likeness, and fruit-bearing tree making fruit whose seed is itself in the tree, according to kind in regard to likeness upon the earth. And so it happened. ¹² And the earth brought forth fodder plants, sowing seed according to kind and according to likeness, and the fruit-bearing tree making fruit whose seed is itself in the tree, corresponding to its kind upon the earth. And God saw that it was good. ¹³ And there was evening, and there was morning, the third day.

¹⁴ And God said, Let luminaries come into being in the firmament of the heavens for illumination of the earth and rule the days and the nights and make a separation in the midst of the day and in the midst of the night. And let them be for a sign and for seasons and for days and for years. ¹⁵ And let them be for illumination in the firmament of the heavens so that they might give light upon the earth. And so it happened. ¹⁶ And God made the two big luminaries, the big luminary to have authority over the day, and the little luminary to have authority over the night and the stars. ¹⁷ And God placed them in the firmament of the heavens so that they might shine upon the earth ¹⁸ and rule over the day and the night and to make a separation in the midst of the light and in the midst of the darkness. And God saw that it was good. ¹⁹ And there was evening, and there was morning, the fourth day.

²⁰ And God said, "Let the water bring forth living, creeping thingsc and birds flying above the earth in relation to the firmament of the heavens. And so it happened. ²¹ And God made the very large fish and every life of living creeping things that the water brought forth according to their kind and every bird with wings according to kind. And God saw that it was good. ²² And God blessed them, saying, Increase and multiply and fill the waters in the seas, and let the birds multiply upon the earth." ²³ And there was evening, and there was morning, the fifth day.

²⁴ And God said, Let the earth bring forth a living creature according to kind, quadrupeds and creeping things and wild animals of the earth according to kind. And so it happened. ²⁵ And God made the wild animals of the earth according to kind and the livestock according to kind and all the creeping things of the earth according to their kind. And God saw that it was good. ²⁶ And God said, Let us make humankind according to our image and according to our likeness, and let them rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the heavens and the livestock and all the earth and all the creeping things that creep upon the earth. ²⁷ And God made humankind; he made him according to the image of God; he made them male and female. ²⁸ And God blessed them, saying, Increase and multiply, and fill the earth, and gain dominion over it, and rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the heavens and all the livestock and all the earth and all the creeping things that creep upon the earth. ²⁹ And God said, Look, I have given to you every herb that has sowable seed that is upon all the earth, and every tree that has sowable seed in its fruit will become food for you, ³⁰ and for all the wild animals of the earth and for all the birds of the heavens and for every creeping thing that creeps upon the earth that has soul of life in itself. And all green fodder will be for food. And so it happened. ³¹ And God saw everything that he made, and look, it was very good! And there was evening, and there was morning, the sixth day.

God Rests

2 The heavens and the earth and all their ornamentation were completed. ² God completed his works that he did on the sixth day, and on the seventh day he ceased from all his works that he did. ³ God blessed the seventh day and made it sacred, because on it he ceased from all his works that God began to do.

Adam and Eve

⁴ This is the book of the origin of the heavens and the earth, when they came into being, on the day when the Lord God made the heavens and the earth, ⁵ and every green plant of the field before they came to be upon the earth, and every herb of the field before they had grown up. For God had not sent rain upon the earth, and there was no human to work the earth, ⁶ but a spring came up out of the earth and watered all the face of the earth. ⁷ And God formed the human with dust from the earth and blew the breath of life into his face, and the human came into being as a living soul.

⁸ The Lord God planted a paradise in Eden toward the east and there he placed the human that he formed. ⁹ And God further brought up from the earth every tree beautiful to the sight and good for food, and the tree of life in the midst of the paradise, and the tree for knowing what is known of good and of evil. ¹⁰ But a river goes out from Eden to water the paradise; from that place it separates into four sources. ¹¹ The name of the one is Pishon; this is the one encircling all the land of Havilah, there where the gold is. ¹² But the gold of that land is beautiful; and the carbuncle and the green stone are there. ¹³ The name of the second river is Gihon; this is the one encircling all the land of Cush. ¹⁴ The third river is the Tigris; this is the one going opposite the Assyrians. And the fourth river, this is the Euphrates. ¹⁵ The Lord God took the human that he formed, and he placed him in the paradise to work and to keep it. ¹⁶ The Lord God commanded Adam, saying, From every tree that is in the paradise you may eat for food, ¹⁷ but from the tree for knowing good and evil, you will not eat from it. And on whichever day you eat from it, you will surely die.a

¹⁸ The Lord God said, It is not good that the human is alone; let us make for him a helper like him. ¹⁹ And God further formed from the earth all the wild animals of the field and all the birds of the heavens. And he led them to Adam to see what he would name them, and anything, whatever Adam named it as a living soul, this was its name. ²⁰ Adam gave names to all the livestock and to all the birds of the heavens and to all the wild animals of the field, yet for Adam, no helper resembling him was found. ²¹ So God laid a trance upon Adam and put him to sleep; and he took one of his ribs and filled up the flesh in the place of it. ²² The Lord God built the rib that he took from Adam into a woman, and he led her to Adam. ²³ And Adam said, Now this is bone from my bones and flesh from my flesh; she will be named ‘Woman’ because she was taken from her man. ²⁴ For this reason a man will leave behind his father and his mother and will cleave to his wife, and the two will become one flesh.

The Fall

3 The two were naked, both Adam and his wife, and they did not feel shame.b Now the serpent was wiser than all the wild animals that were upon the earth that the Lord God made.

And the serpent said to the woman, Why is it that God said, ‘You may not eat from every tree of the garden?’  ² The woman said to the serpent, From every tree of the garden we may eat, ³ but from the fruit of the tree that is in the middle of the garden God said, ‘You will not eat from it, nor may you touch it, in order that you might not die.’  ⁴ The serpent said to the woman, "You certainly will not die;c ⁵ for God knows that in the day you eat from it, your eyes will be opened, and you will be as gods who know good and evil." ⁶ The woman saw that the tree was good for food and that it was pleasing to the eyes to look at and it was seasonable to look at, and after taking some of its fruit, she ate. She also gave to her husband with her, and they ate. ⁷ Then the eyes of the two were opened, and they realized that they were naked, and they sewed together fig-tree leaves and made for themselves loincloths.

⁸ They heard the sound of the Lord God walking about in the garden in the evening, and both Adam and his wife hid from the face of the Lord God in the middle of the tree of the garden. ⁹ And Lord God summoned Adam and said to him, Adam, where are you? ¹⁰ He said to him, I heard the sound of you walking about in the garden, and I was afraid because I am naked, and I hid. ¹¹ He said to him, Who told you that you are naked? Unless you have eaten from the tree of which I commanded you ‘From this one alone, do not eat.’  ¹² Adam said, The woman with me, whom you gave, she gave me something from the tree, and I ate. ¹³ The Lord God said to the woman, What is this you have done? The woman said, The serpent deceived me, and I ate. ¹⁴ The Lord God said to the serpent, Because you have done this, accursed are you of all the livestock and of all the wild animals of the earth. You will go upon your chest and belly, and you will eat earth all the days of your life. ¹⁵ I will place enmity between you and the woman, and between your seed and her seed; he will watch your head carefully, and you will watch his heel carefully. ¹⁶ He said to the woman, Multiplying, I will multiply your pain and your moaning. You will bring forth children in pain, and your recourse will be to your husband, and he will be master over you. ¹⁷ And he said to Adam, Because you obeyed the voice of your wife and ate from the tree of which I commanded you, ‘From only this one, do not eat,’ you ate from that one, the earth is accursed by your works. In pain you will eat it all the days of your life. ¹⁸ Thorns and thistles will grow up for you. You will eat the herbs of the field. ¹⁹ You will eat your bread by the sweat of your face until you return into the earth from which you were taken; because you are earth, and you will depart into the earth.

²⁰ Adam called the name of the woman Zoe,a because she was mother of all the living. ²¹ The Lord God made tunics of skin for Adam and his wife, and he put them on them.

²² And the Lord God said, Look, Adam has become like one of us, knowing good and evil; so now may he never stretch out his hand and take from the tree of life and eat, and will live forever.b ²³ So the Lord God sent him away from the luxurious garden to work the earth from which he was taken. ²⁴ So he threw Adam out and settled him opposite the luxurious garden and stationed the cherubim and the flaming, turning sword to guard the way to the tree of life.

Cain and Abel

4 And Adam knew Eve, his wife, and she conceived and brought forth Cain and said, I have acquired a man through God. ² And she proceeded to bring forth his brother, Abel.

Abel became a herdsman of sheep, and Cain was working the earth. ³ Now this happened after a number of days: Cain brought some of the fruit of the earth as an offering for the Lord, ⁴ and Abel himself also brought some of the firstborn of his sheep and some of their hard fat parts. God looked upon Abel and upon his gifts, ⁵ but he did not pay attention to Cain and upon his offerings. He grieved Cain very much, and he fell in face. ⁶ The Lord God said to Cain, Why have you become deeply grieved, and why has your face fallen? ⁷ Have you not sinned if you offer rightly but do not divide rightly? Calm down! His recourse will be to you, and you will rule him. ⁸ And Cain said to Abel, his brother, Let’s walk through the field. And this happened while they were in the field: Cain rose against Abel, his brother, and he killed him. ⁹ Then God said to Cain, Where is Abel, your brother? But he said, I don’t know. I’m not my brother’s guardian, am I? ¹⁰ God said, What have you done? The voice of your brother’s blood is crying out to me from the earth. ¹¹ Now, accursed are you upon the earth, which opened its mouth wide to receive the blood of your brother from your hand, ¹² because you will work the earth; it will not proceed to give its strength to you. You will moan and tremble upon the earth. ¹³ Cain said to the Lord, My guilt is too great for me to be forgiven. ¹⁴ If you throw me out today from the face of the earth, and I will be hidden from your face, then I will be moaning and trembling upon the earth, and anyone who finds me will kill me. ¹⁵ The Lord God said to him, It will not be like that. Anyone who kills Cain will release seven reprisals. The Lord God has placed a sign for Cain so that none who find him would kill him. ¹⁶ Cain went out from the face of God and lived in the land of Nod, opposite Eden.

¹⁷ Cain knew his wife, and once she conceived she brought forth Enoch. He was building a city and named the city after the name of his son, Enoch. ¹⁸ Irad was born to Enoch,a and Irad fathered Mehujael, and Mehujael fathered Methushael, and Methushael fathered Lamech. ¹⁹ Lamech took two wives for himself; the name of the one was Adah, and the name of the second was Zillah. ²⁰ Adah brought forth Jabal. This man was the father of cattle raisers who live in tents. ²¹ The name of his brother was Jubal. This man was the one who invented the harp and lyre. ²² Zillah brought forth—even she—Tubal-cain, and he was a hammer-using coppersmith of copper and of iron. The sister of Tubal-cain was Naamah. ²³ Lamech said to his wives:

"Adah and Zillah, hear my voice,

wives of Lamech, give ear to my words,

because I killed a man for a wound to me

and a young man for a bruise to me,

²⁴ because sevenfold revenge has been given to Cain,b

but from Lamech seventy times seven."

²⁵ Adam knew Eve, his wife, and, once she conceived, she brought forth a son and called his name Seth, saying, Because God raised up another offspring for me in the place of Abel, whom Cain killed. ²⁶ Seth had a son, and he called his name Enosh. This one hoped to invoke the name of the Lord God.

Adam’s Descendants

5 This is the book of the generation of humans on the day when God made Adam, he made him according to the image of God. ² He made them male and female. He blessed them, and he named their name Adam on the day when he made them. ³ Adam lived two hundred and thirty years and fathered a child according to his appearance and according to his image, and he named his name Seth. ⁴ The days of Adam after he fathered Seth were seven hundred years, and he fathered sons and daughters. ⁵ And all the days of Adam that he lived were nine hundred and thirty years, and he died.

⁶ Seth lived two hundred and five years, and he fathered Enosh. ⁷ And after he fathered Enosh, Seth lived seven hundred and seven years, and he fathered sons and daughters. ⁸ And all the days of Seth were nine hundred and twelve years, and he died.

⁹ And Enosh lived one hundred and ninety years, and he fathered Kenan. ¹⁰ And after he fathered Kenan, Enosh lived seven hundred and fifteen years, and he fathered sons and daughters. ¹¹ And all the days of Enosh were nine hundred and five years, and he died.

¹² And Kenan lived one hundred and seventy years, and he fathered Mahalalel. ¹³ And after he fathered Mahalalel, Kenan lived seven hundred and forty years, and he fathered sons and daughters. ¹⁴ And all the days of Kenan were nine hundred and ten years, and he died.

¹⁵ And Mahalalel lived one hundred and sixty-five years, and he fathered Jared. ¹⁶ And after he fathered Jared, Mahalalel lived seven hundred and thirty years, and he fathered sons and daughters. ¹⁷ And all the days of Mahalalel were eight hundred and ninety-five years, and he died.

¹⁸ And Jared lived one hundred and sixty-two years, and he fathered Enoch. ¹⁹ And after he fathered Enoch, Jared lived eight hundred years, and he fathered sons and daughters. ²⁰ And all the days of Jared were nine hundred and sixty-two years, and he died. ²¹ And Enoch lived one hundred and sixty-five years, and he fathered Methuselah. ²² Enoch was very pleasing to God for two hundred years after he fathered Methuselah, and he fathered sons and daughters. ²³ And all the days of Enoch were three hundred and sixty-five years. ²⁴ And Enoch was very pleasing to God and was not found because God transposed him.

²⁵ And Methuselah lived one hundred and eighty-seven years, and he fathered Lamech. ²⁶ And after he fathered Lamech, Methuselah lived seven hundred and eighty-two years, and he fathered sons and daughters. ²⁷ And all the days of Methuselah, which he lived, were nine hundred and sixty-nine years, and he died.

²⁸ And Lamech lived one hundred and eighty-eight years, and he fathered a son. ²⁹ And he gavea him the name Noah, saying, This one will relieve us from our works and from the pains of our hands and from the earth which the Lord God cursed. ³⁰ And after he fathered Noah, Lamech lived five hundred and sixty-five years, and he fathered sons and daughters. ³¹ And all the days of Lamech were seven hundred and fifty-three years, and he died.

Corruption of Humanity

6 

bAnd Noah lived five hundred years, and Noah fathered three sons: Shem, Ham, and Japheth.

And it happened when humans began to become numerous upon the earth, and they had daughters, ² the angels of God, having seen the daughters of humans, that they were beautiful, took for themselves women from all whom they picked out. ³ The Lord God said, "My breath will certainly not reside in these humans for very longc because they are flesh, but their days will be one hundred and twenty years. ⁴ Now giants were upon the earth in those days, and after that, whenever the sons of God entered into the daughters of humans, they fathered children for themselves; those were the giants who were from long ago, the people of renown. ⁵ Now the Lord God saw that the wicked actions of humans multiplied upon the earth, and everyone was focused in his heart on evil things all their days. ⁶ And God reflected that he made humankind upon the earth and considered. ⁷ And God said, I will discard humanity, whom I made, from the face of the earth, from human to animal, and from creeping things to winged birds of the heavens, because I am angry that I made them." ⁸ But Noah found grace before the Lord God.

Judgment of Humanity

⁹ Now these are the generations of Noah: Noah, a righteous person who was perfect among his generation. Noah was pleasing to God. ¹⁰ Noah fathered three sons: Shem, Ham, and Japheth. ¹¹ Now the earth was marred before God, and the earth was full of wrongdoing. ¹² The Lord God saw the earth, and it was corrupted because all flesh was corrupting its way upon the earth.

¹³ God said to Noah, The time of all humanity has come before me because the earth was full of wrongdoing from them, and, look, I am destroying them and the earth. ¹⁴ So then make for yourself an ark from trees; you will make the ark of squared compartments and smear it inside and outside with pitch. ¹⁵ In this way you will make the ark: three hundred cubits the length of the ark, and fifty cubits the width, and thirty cubits its height. ¹⁶ While gathering that together, you will make the ark. You will complete it to a cubit from above. And you will make the door of the ark out of the sides; with a ground floor, with two stories, and with three stories you will make it. ¹⁷ Look, I am bringing the deluge, water upon the earth, to destroy all flesh in which the breath of life under the heavens is in it, and whatever is upon the earth will come to an end. ¹⁸ I will establish my testament with you; and you will enter into the ark, you and your sons and your wife and the wives of your sons with you. ¹⁹ And of all the livestock and of all the creeping things and of all the wild animals and of all flesh, two by two of all you will bring into the ark in order that you might feed them with yourself; male and female they will be. ²⁰ Of all the winged birds according to their kind and of all the livestock according to their kind and of all the creeping things that are creeping upon the earth according to their kind, two by two of all will enter with you to be fed with you, male and female. ²¹ You will take for yourself of all the food that you will consume, and you will gather it together to yourself, and it will be for you and for them to eat. ²² And Noah did everything that the Lord God commanded him; thus he did.

The Flood

7 The Lord God said to Noah, Enter, you and your whole house, into the ark, because I have seen you as righteous before me in this generation. ² Of the clean livestock lead in for yourself, seven by seven, male and female. Of the unclean livestock, two by two, male and female. ³ Of the clean birds of the heavens, seven by seven, male and female; and of all the unclean birds, two by two, male and female, to maintain offspring upon all the earth. ⁴ For in seven days I am bringing rain upon the earth for forty days and forty nights, and I will destroy all the heights that I created from the face of the earth. ⁵ And Noah did everything that the Lord God commanded him.

⁶ Noah was six hundred years old, and the deluge was upon the earth. ⁷ Noah and his sons and his wife and the wives of his sons entered with him into the ark, because of the water of the deluge. ⁸ And of the birds and of the clean livestock and of the unclean livestock and of the birds and from all the creeping things that were upon the earth, ⁹ two by two they entered to Noah into the ark, male and female, just as God commanded him.

¹⁰ And this happened: after the seven days, the water of the deluge came upon the earth. ¹¹ In the six hundredth year in the life of Noah, during the second month, on the twenty-seventh of the month, on this day all the springs of the deeps burst forth, and the waterfalls of the heavens were opened. ¹² And the rain came upon the earth for forty days and forty nights.

¹³ On this day Noah, Shem, Ham, and Japheth, the sons of Noah, and the wife of Noah, and the three wives of his sons entered with him into the ark. ¹⁴ And all the wild animals according to their kind and all the livestock according to their kind and every creeping thing moving upon the earth according to its kind and every bird according to its kind, ¹⁵ they entered with Noah into the ark, two by two, male and female, from all flesh in which there is the breath of life. ¹⁶ And the things that entered, male and female of all flesh, entered just as God commanded Noah. And the Lord God shut the ark from its outside.

¹⁷ And the deluge happened upon the earth, for forty days and forty nights upon the earth. And the water increased, and it lifted the ark. and it was raised up from the earth. ¹⁸ And the water prevailed and increased very much upon the earth, and the ark was being carried upon the water. ¹⁹ The water prevailed extremely over the earth and covered up all the high mountains that are under the heavens. ²⁰ The water rose up fifteen cubits, and it covered all the high mountains. ²¹ And all flesh of the birds and of the livestock and of the beasts moving over the earth, and every creeping thing moving on the earth, and every human died. ²² And everything that has the breath of life and everything that was upon the dry land died. ²³ And he wiped out everything that rose up on the face of all the earth, from human to animal and creeping things and the birds of the heavens. They were wiped out from the earth, and only Noah and those who were with him in the ark remained. ²⁴ The water was raised up over the earth for one hundred and fifty days.

The Flood Subsides

8 God remembered Noah and all of the beasts and all of the livestock and all of the birds and all of the creeping things, all that were with him in the ark, and God brought a wind upon the earth, and the water abated. ² And the fountains of the deep and the waterfalls of the heavens were revealed, and the rain from the heavens was held back. ³ The water subsided, going from the earth. The water subsided and lessened after one hundred and fifty days. ⁴ The ark ran aground in the seventh month on the twenty-seventh day of the month on the Ararat mountains. ⁵ The water, going, kept diminishing until the tenth month, and in the eleventh month, on the first day of the month, the tops of the mountains appeared.

⁶ And this happened: after forty days, Noah opened the window of the ark that he made, ⁷ and he sent off the raven to see if the water had abated. After it went out, it did not return until the water dried up from the earth. ⁸ He sent off the dove after it to see if the water had abated from of the earth, ⁹ and when the dove did not find rest for its feet, it returned to him in the ark, because water was on all the face of all the earth; and stretching out his hand, he took it and brought it in to himself into the ark. ¹⁰ Having waited yet another seven days, again he sent forth the dove from the ark. ¹¹ The dove returned to him toward evening,a and it had a dry leaf of an olive tree in its mouth, so Noah knew that the water had abated from the earth. ¹² And having waited yet another seven days, again he sent forth the dove, and it no longer proceeded to return to him.

¹³ And it happened in the six hundredth and first year in the life of Noah, during the first month, on the first day of the month: the water ceased from the earth. Noah uncovered the roof of the ark, and he saw that the water

Reviews for The Lexham English Septuagint

[Doug Anthony Boninsegna · Rating: 5 out of 5 stars]

very good .is there anyway to purchase a pdf ?