Revelation Tribulation and Triumph

By Practical Christianity Foundation

Tribulation and TriumphThe King is coming This Devotional Commentary on the book of Revelation candidly addresses various controversial issues and offers challenging devotional comments, assuring the redeemed and warning the unsaved about the unchanging Truth of God's Holy Word. May we heed the words of Christ and open our ears to "hear what the Spirit says to the churches.
".... a credible, honest, sincere and engaging study … challenging to the scholar, appealing to the sceptic, and nurturing to the seeking." Josh McDowell Author/Speaker

• Language: English
• Publisher: Practical Christianity Foundation
• Release date: Aug 21, 2020
• ISBN: 9781600980374

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Information

From the conception of the Practical Christianity Foundation (PCF), it has been the goal of the organization to convey the truth in Scripture through verse-by-verse devotional studies such as this one. As part of that goal, we agree in an attempt neither to prove nor to disprove any traditional or alternative interpretations, beliefs, or doctrines but rather to allow the Holy Spirit to reveal the truth contained within the Scriptures. Any interpretations relating to ambiguous passages that are not directly and specifically verifiable by other scriptural references are simply presented in what we believe to be the most likely intention of the message based on those things that we are specifically told. In those instances, our conclusions are noted as interpretive, and such analyses should not be understood as doctrinal positions that we are attempting to champion.

This study is divided into sections, usually between six and eight verses, and each section concludes with a Notes/Applications passage, which draws practical insight from the related verses that can be applied to contemporary Christian living. The intent is that the reader will complete one section per day, will gain a greater understanding of the verses within that passage, and will daily be challenged toward a deeper commitment to our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. Also included at certain points within the text are Dig Deeper boxes, which are intended to assist readers who desire to invest additional time to study topics that relate to the section in which these boxes appear. Our prayer is that this study will impact the lives of all believers, regardless of age, ethnicity, or education.

Each of PCF’s original projects is a collaborative effort of many writers, content editors, grammatical editors, transcribers, researchers, readers, and other contributors, and as such, we present them only as products of Practical Christianity Foundation as a whole. These works are not for the recognition or acclamation of any particular individual but are written simply as a means to uphold and fulfill the greater purpose of our Mission Statement, which is to exalt the holy name of God Almighty by declaring the redemptive message of His Son, the Lord Jesus Christ, to the lost global community and equipping the greater Christian community through the communication of the holy Word of God in its entirety through every appropriate means available.

Practical Christianity Foundation

Value Statements

1.We value the Holy Name of God the Father and will strive to exalt Him through godly living, committed service, and effective communication. As long as you live, you, your children, and your grandchildren must fear the Lord your God. All of you must obey all his laws and commands that I’m giving you, and you will live a long time (Deuteronomy 6:2).

2.We value the redemptive work of the Lord Jesus Christ, God’s Holy Son, for a lost world and will strive to communicate His redemptive message to the global community. Then Jesus said to them, ‘So wherever you go in the world, tell everyone the Good News’ (Mark 16:15).

3.We value the Holy Spirit through Whose regenerating work sinners are redeemed and the redeemed are convinced of the truth of God’s Holy Word. He will come to convict the world of sin, to show the world what has God’s approval, and to convince the world that God judges it (John 16:8).

4.We value the Holy Word of God and will strive to communicate it in its entirety. "¹⁶Every Scripture passage is inspired by God. All of them are useful for teaching, pointing out errors, correcting people, and training them for a life that has God’s approval. ¹⁷They equip God’s servants so that they are completely prepared to do good things" (2 Timothy 3:16–17).

5.We value spiritual growth in God’s people through the equipping ministry of the church of the Lord Jesus Christ and will strive to provide resources for that ministry by the communication of God’s Holy Word, encouraging them to be lovers of the truth. But grow in the good will and knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. Glory belongs to him now and for that eternal day! Amen (2 Peter 3:18).

The word revelation is derived from the Greek word apokalypto, which means to disclose, uncover, manifest, and reveal that which is hidden.¹ In the entire Bible, there is perhaps no other book that generates more conversation or controversy, none that is more studied yet less understood than this last book in the canon of the Christian Scriptures.

The problems of interpretation are generated from attempts to decipher each detail in such a way as to reflect the current world situation. However, as the world situation changes, so do the interpretations of this book. The first century Church expected Jesus to return in a very short time. It is evident that Jesus’ closest disciples began to rethink their position even before the apostolic period ended. Toward the end of his life (around A.D. 68), Simon Peter, the leader of Christ’s apostles, wrote a second epistle that seemed to address such concerns. "⁸Dear friends, don’t ignore this fact: One day with the Lord is like a thousand years, and a thousand years are like one day. ⁹The Lord isn’t slow to do what he promised, as some people think. Rather, he is patient for your sake. He doesn’t want to destroy anyone but wants all people to have an opportunity to turn to him and change the way they think and act" (2 Peter 3:8–9). Ever since that time, Christians have struggled to understand the Book of Revelation in the context of world history as they watch the slow progression of events that impact their lives. In times of terrible persecution, famines, wars, and human atrocities, Christians have concluded that the end was near, wondering when Jesus would return and right all wrongs.

Because of these multiple streams of Christian thought, today’s Christians, no matter how sincere and passionate in their pursuit of biblical knowledge, find themselves at a juncture that challenges their best efforts at unraveling the mystery of this marvelous book. In the midst of this noble pursuit, they may discover that there is no other subject that will generate more heated debate than this one. Instead of discovering the glorious Christ of John’s Revelation, they often find themselves embroiled in debates that appear to have no satisfactory resolution.

Despite all of the debates, all of the numerous theories and interpretive systems, and all of the controversies that consume the energy of Christ’s Church, there is perhaps no more exciting book in all of God’s Word. It is the crowning jewel of God’s unfailing plan to save for Himself a people that will live with Him and praise His Holy Name for all eternity. From the beginning of Genesis, one overriding, all-consuming theme comes to light in God’s Word—redemption. Revelation is the consummation of that theme when Christ completely destroys all evil and invites His bride to the marriage feast of the Lamb. We view Christ as high and lifted up. Here we discover the glorious riches of His Kingdom that He has prepared for those who have been invited to share in this feast. Now, at long last, the Lord Jesus Christ ascends His throne that has been preserved for Him from the foundation of the world, and every knee bows at the awesomeness of His unsurpassed majesty, power, dominion, and glory. On this theme—on this revelation—all Christians who love the Word of God will universally and enthusiastically agree.

Generally, there are four positions by which the Book of Revelation is traditionally interpreted: historicist, preterist, futurist, and idealist (sometimes called the spiritual or symbolic view).

•The historicist believes that the Book of Revelation is an outline of the history of the church between the first and second comings of Christ.

•A preterist believes that a majority of the prophecy in Revelation was fulfilled in the first century and that the main theme of the book points to the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70.

•A futurist believes that Revelation contains end-times prophecies and, more specifically, prophecies pertaining to the tribulation and second coming of the Lord Jesus Christ.

•An idealist believes that Revelation is largely (in some cases exclusively) symbolic, that it should not be taken literally, and that it merely illustrates the greater cosmic struggle between good and evil.²

Obviously, these camps vary greatly in their viewpoints, and the impact and significance of this book depend upon whether one believes that the events depicted within have already occurred, are yet to occur, or have never and will never occur in a physical sense at all. Granted, these positions were created by men, defined by men, and defended by men. If any one of these positions could be shown to be true beyond question or doubt, all other positions would be rendered obsolete. Such is evidently not the case. Each position has certain arguments that seem valid and worthy of consideration, just as each position has certain areas of susceptibility and fallibility. Some verses of the book are more easily understood through the arguments of one position while other verses seem to make more sense as interpreted by an alternate position. This is both the frustration and fascination that surrounds the Book of Revelation.

The dilemma is that as soon as one agrees with a certain interpretation on a specific point, he is quickly dismissed by an opposing view as an advocate for the position that most closely aligns itself with that interpretation. To avoid such labels, some have even adopted new labels, such as partial preterists, but in doing so perhaps only further cloud the already murky waters.³

The point is this: each position has at least some merit or else it would not have gained credibility among the other viewpoints. There is no safe way to approach the interpretation of Revelation except to agree neither to fully adopt nor to fully reject any of these positions. Still, such an approach should not be misconstrued as indecisive or uncertain. Rather, it is only with a clear understanding of these and other viewpoints that one could even attempt to interpret this book. There is always a sense of mystery when attempting to explain the ways of God.

For instance, one can scarcely question that the seven churches addressed in chapters one through three were literal, historical churches that existed in Asia Minor, yet one would have great difficulty proving that all of the events depicted in later chapters of Revelation have already occurred. Therefore, one must conclude that the book contains both historical and prophetic elements. Similarly, both symbolic and physical elements coexist. Few can doubt that there is a great deal of symbolism in the book, yet to suggest that its contents in their entirety are merely symbolic illustrations of spiritual realms is to disregard the physical ramifications of its many conditional warnings, such as repent, change your life, return to God (Revelation 2:5, 2:16, 2:22, 3:3, 3:19). Indeed, the entire book is imbued with physical judgments, physical conditions, and physical consequences.

Furthermore, a variety of interpretations have been entertained regarding the authorship of Revelation. Most of the early church fathers agree that the book was written by John, the beloved apostle of Jesus. Some critics doubt the apostolic authorship of Revelation because of the inferior style and grammar of the Greek with which the book was written when compared to that of other writings by John the Apostle.⁴ However, Acts 4:13 refers to John as someone with no education or special training, so the use of such unpolished Greek should not be surprising, especially considering the urgency and exhilaration with which he surely felt compelled to record the visions as they were occurring. Some commentators even suggest that John owed the more skillful Greek demonstrated in his Gospel and epistles to an amanuensis (or secretary), who was, for obvious reasons, not accessible to the apostle during his banishment on the isle of Patmos.⁵ For these and many other reasons, the acceptance of an apostolic authorship is favored.

Even more a subject of debate is the dating of the text. Most preterists insist on an authorship occurring between A.D. 54–68 during the reign of the notorious Roman emperor Nero, which assists an explanation that the events in the book depict the grueling cultural climate of the first-century church, culminating with the destruction of the temple (view image) and the city of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 (view image).⁶ More popular and more convincing are the arguments that the writing occurred between A.D. 90–96 during the reign of the Roman emperor Domitian. The historical recordings of early-church fathers such as Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, and Jerome substantiate a later dating of the book.⁷ Furthermore, some scholars have suggested that chapters two and three reveal the prominence of certain cities that would only be historically consistent with their conditions in the late first century.⁸

An in-depth study of the varied interpretations regarding the countless symbols, numbers, events, judgments, sequences, and visions presented in Revelation is surely better reserved for those books which endeavor to present a thorough critique. In virtually every book written about Revelation, even the smallest details are credited with having monumental significance. Ultimately, there is far too much controversy over Revelation to be adequately presented in what is intended as a devotional study. With the preceding foundation laid, we approach this commentary on Revelation from the viewpoint that the prophecies within are perhaps telescopic (also called expanded or double-fulfillment prophecy). Whereas, not to dismiss altogether the possibility of an earlier date of authorship and a partial fulfillment of certain prophecies with the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70, we uphold the tenet that the events described within Revelation pertain to the final judgment of Almighty God upon the reprobate inhabitants of the earth in the last days. Apart from such an interpretation, one might find little validity or usefulness to this book in the modern world.

Almighty God has yet to judge the entire sum of unrepentant inhabitants on the earth (Revelation 6:16–17; 14:7). He has yet to pour out the full measure of His wrath and indignation (Revelation 14:10). The world has yet to experience the utter devastation that will come upon its environment (Revelation 16). The Lord Jesus Christ has yet to return to the earth in triumphant glory (Revelation 19:11–16), to conquer wholly the world’s evil (Revelation 19:19–21), to reign upon the earth for a thousand years (Revelation 20:1–5), to finish the judgment of Satan and his followers (Revelation 20:7–15), or to establish and reign in His eternal Kingdom with those He has redeemed (Revelation 21, 22).

Aside from the wrath and tribulation uniquely depicted in Revelation, no other book so fully illustrates the magnificent splendor of the everlasting Kingdom that awaits those who have placed their faith and hope in Jesus Christ. Indeed, there is much to be gained by reading this book despite its tendency at times to seem puzzling, overwhelming, and even frightening.

So, what is the benefit in reading a book whose interpretation is so difficult to affirm with absolute certainty? God did not give us the Book of Revelation to frustrate us but to strengthen us, not to confuse us but to encourage us.⁹ Instead, we should take confidence both to persevere in the midst of tribulation and to anticipate the Lord Jesus Christ’s glorious, ultimate triumph. Therefore, we approach this book with full cognizance of the debates with which the Christian community struggles, but with full devotion to the Savior Who has redeemed us, Who is redeeming us, and Who will one day redeem us when He ushers us into His eternal Kingdom. While we acknowledge that we now see a blurred image in a mirror, then we will see very clearly (1 Corinthians 13:12) and admit that our understanding has been obscured by the boundaries of our human limitations. We can perhaps find the simplest benefit written in the first lines of the first chapter: Blessed is the one who reads, as well as those who hear the words of this prophecy and pay attention to what is written in it because the time is near (Revelation 1:3).

1.J. D. Douglas, ed., New Bible Dictionary, 2nd ed. (Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 1962), 1024.

2.Merrill C. Tenney, Interpreting Revelation: A Reasonable Guide to Understanding the Last Book in the Bible (1957; reprint, Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2001), 135–146.

3.R.C. Sproul, The Last Days According to Jesus (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1998), 153–159.

4.Bruce B. Barton et al., Life Application Bible Commentary: Revelation (Wheaton: Tyndale House Publishers, 2000), xi–xii.

5.Steve Gregg, ed., Revelation: Four Views, A Parallel Commentary (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1997), 13.

6.Barton et al., Life Application Bible Commentary: Revelation, xiii.

7.Albert Barnes, Revelation, of Barnes’ Notes on the New Testament (1884; reprint, Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2001), xlvi–xlix.

8.Robert H. Mounce, The Book of Revelation, of The New International Commentary on the New Testament, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1998), 19.

9.Vern S. Poythress, The Returning King: A Guide to the Book of Revelation (Phillipsburg, New Jersey: P & R Publishing, 2000), 11–13.

Revelation 2:5

⁵ Remember how far you have fallen. Return to me and change the way you think and act, and do what you did at first. I will come to you and take your lamp stand from its place if you don’t change.

Revelation 2:16

¹⁶ So return to me and change the way you think and act, or I will come to you quickly and wage war against them with the sword from my mouth.

Revelation 2:22

²² Watch me! I’m going to throw her into a sickbed. Those who commit sexual sins with her will also suffer a lot, unless they turn away from what she is doing.

Revelation 3:3

³ So remember what you received and heard. Obey, and change the way you think and act. If you’re not alert, I’ll come like a thief. You don’t know when I will come.

Revelation 3:19

¹⁹ I correct and discipline everyone I love. Take this seriously, and change the way you think and act.

Acts 4:13

¹³ After they found out that Peter and John had no education or special training, they were surprised to see how boldly they spoke. They realized that these men had been with Jesus.

Revelation 6:16-17

¹⁶ They said to the mountains and rocks, Fall on us, and hide us from the face of the one who sits on the throne and from the anger of the lamb, ¹⁷ because the frightening day of their anger has come, and who is able to endure it?

Revelation 14:7

⁷ The angel said in a loud voice, Fear God and give him glory, because the time has come for him to judge. Worship the one who made heaven and earth, the sea and springs.

Revelation 14:10

¹⁰ will drink the wine of God’s fury, which has been poured unmixed into the cup of God’s anger. Then he will be tortured by fiery sulfur in the presence of the holy angels and the lamb.

Revelation 19:19-21

¹⁹ I saw the beast, the kings of the earth, and their armies gathered to wage war against the rider on the horse and his army. ²⁰ The beast and the false prophet who had done miracles for the beast were captured. By these miracles the false prophet had deceived those who had the brand of the beast and worshiped its statue. Both of them were thrown alive into the fiery lake of burning sulfur. ²¹ The rider on the horse killed the rest with the sword that came out of his mouth. All the birds gorged themselves on the flesh of those who had been killed.

Revelation 20:1-5

¹I saw an angel coming down from heaven, holding the key to the bottomless pit and a large chain in his hand. ² He overpowered the serpent, that ancient snake, named Devil and Satan. The angel chained up the serpent for 1,000 years. ³ He threw it into the bottomless pit. The angel shut and sealed the pit over the serpent to keep it from deceiving the nations anymore until the 1,000 years were over. After that it must be set free for a little while.

⁴ I saw thrones, and those who sat on them were allowed to judge. Then I saw the souls of those whose heads had been cut off because of their testimony about Jesus and because of the word of God. They had not worshiped the beast or its statue and were not branded on their foreheads or hands. They lived and ruled with Christ for 1,000 years. ⁵ The rest of the dead did not live until the 1,000 years ended.

This is the first time that people come back to life.

Revelation 20:7-15

⁷ When 1,000 years are over, Satan will be freed from his prison. ⁸ He will go out to deceive Gog and Magog, the nations in the four corners of the earth, and gather them for war. They will be as numerous as the grains of sand on the seashore. ⁹ [I saw that] they spread over the broad expanse of the earth and surrounded the camp of God’s holy people and the beloved city. Fire came from heaven and burned them up. ¹⁰ The devil, who deceived them, was thrown into the fiery lake of sulfur, where the beast and the false prophet were also thrown. They will be tortured day and night forever and ever.

¹¹ I saw a large, white throne and the one who was sitting on it. The earth and the sky fled from his presence, but no place was found for them. ¹² I saw the dead, both important and unimportant people, standing in front of the throne. Books were opened, including the Book of Life. The dead were judged on the basis of what they had done, as recorded in the books. ¹³ The sea gave up its dead. Death and hell gave up their dead. People were judged based on what they had done. ¹⁴ Death and hell were thrown into the fiery lake. (The fiery lake is the second death.) ¹⁵ Those whose names were not found in the Book of Life were thrown into the fiery lake.

1 Corinthians 13:12

¹² Now we see a blurred image in a mirror. Then we will see very clearly. Now my knowledge is incomplete. Then I will have complete knowledge as God has complete knowledge of me.

Revelation 1:3

³Blessed is the one who reads, as well as those who hear the words of this prophecy and pay attention to what is written in it because the time is near.

ACROPOLIS — The high point of the city, the elevated, fortified section of various ancient Greek cities.[… READ MORE]

The Acropolis of Athens, a hill about 260 feet (80m) high, with a flat oval top about 500 feet (150m) wide and 1,150 feet (350m) long, was a ceremonial site beginning in the Neolithic Period and was walled before the 6th century B.C. by the Pelasgians. Devoted to religious rather than defensive purposes, the area was adorned during the time of Cimon and Pericles with some of the world’s greatest architectural and sculptural monuments.

The top was reached by a winding processional path at the west end, where the impressive Propylaea stood. From there, the Sacred Way led past a colossal bronze statue of Athena (called Athena Promachus) and the site of the old temple of Athena to the Parthenon. To the north was the Erechtheum and to the southwest the temple of Nike Apteros (Wingless Victory). On the southern slope were the Odeum of Herodes Atticus and the theater of Dionysus.

Although the Acropolis was laid waste by the Persians in 480 B.C. and was further damaged by the Turks and others, remains of the Parthenon, Erechtheum, and Propylaea still stand. Many of its treasures are in the national museum of Greece, in Athens. Over the years, the Acropolis has suffered severely from pollution and from well-intentioned but badly executed attempts at repair. In 1975 the Greek government began a major restoration project, which by the mid-1990s was only about 40% complete.¹

The Acropolis at Athens (Vol 11; Greece; tb011501034)

¹ Paul Lagassé and Columbia University, The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. (New York; Detroit: Columbia University Press; Sold and distributed by Gale Group, 2000).

THE FIRST JEWISH REVOLT AND THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM — Uprising in A.D. 66–70, occurred as the result of a series of ineffective Roman governors in Judea. [… READ MORE]

The last Jewish king, Agrippa I (the Herod of Acts 12), died in A.D. 44, and the next 20 years were filled with persecution and humiliation for the Jews in Palestine. The unrest needed only a spark to flame into open revolt; the spark was provided by Florus, the Roman governor appointed in A.D. 64. His demand for money from the temple treasury, and the slaughter and pillage by Roman soldiers, provoked the Jews into an uprising in the year 66.

Rebellion quickly spread throughout Palestine, accompanied by a general struggle between Jews and pagans in several eastern Mediterranean cities. The revolt in Palestine was led by the Zealots, a Jewish group that had long wanted the Romans to leave Palestine. After an initial Jewish victory at the pass of Beth-horon, the emperor Nero dispatched his most able general, Vespasian, to direct the operation of punishing the rebels. By the autumn of A.D. 67 all of Galilee and other northern lands were back in Roman hands. In 67 and 68 further operations in Samaria and Judea left only four strongholds in Jewish control. At this point the Roman campaign slackened. Nero committed suicide in A.D. 68, and after three short-lived emperors, General Vespasian gained control of the empire in A.D. 69. His son Titus took command of the forces in Palestine, and laid siege to Jerusalem in A.D. 70.

The Jews in the capital might have been better prepared had they taken advantage of the turmoil in Rome to consolidate their own position and resolve disputes among warring Jewish factions. As it was, the arrival of Titus with 80,000 soldiers forced them to unify for a last defense of the city.

Arch of Titus in the forum in Rome

It commemorates Titus’ conquest of Jerusalem in A.D. 70

(Vol 15; Rome; Arch of Titus; tb112105061)

The siege of the city lasted for some 5 months. Jerusalem held out heroically against the advancing Romans, forcing a step-by-step conquest of the city. A tragic moment in Jewish history came early in August, A.D. 70, when for the first time in centuries, the morning and evening sacrifices were not offered at the temple. About August 29, under circumstances still not clear, the sanctuary was put to the torch and the temple destroyed, thereby fulfilling Jesus’ prophecy (Matthew 24:1, 2; Mark 13:1, 2; Luke 19:43, 44; 21:5–7). For another month some resistance continued, but by the end of September the conflict was over in the desolated city. In all, perhaps 1,000,000 Jews were killed and 900,000 taken captive during the course of the revolt.¹

¹ Walter A. Elwell and Barry J. Beitzel, Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1988). 792.

ALEXANDER THE GREAT — Macedonian conqueror, (356–323 B.C.).

Statue of Alexander the Great - Thessaloniki

[… READ MORE]

His life has influenced history and culture for more than two millennia, down to the present time. He was a brilliant organizer and military strategist, but his greatest achievement was the Hellenization of the empire he won. This Greek cultural influence was a unifying element among many diverse peoples, although among the Jews it produced cultural and religious conflict.

The introduction of the Greek language throughout this empire also had far-reachingeffects. The Old Testament was translated into Greek in Alexandria, Egypt, and the New Testament books were written in that language. The earliest Christian missionaries were bilingual, so that it was possible to bring the gospel to the Jew first, and also to the Greek.

Alexander was the son of an illustrious father, Philip II of Macedon, whose magnificent tomb has only recently come to archaeological light. A seasoned military leader in his teens, Alexander succeeded to the throne at the age of 20 after the assassination of his father. After putting down the rebellions that broke out at his father’s death, Alexander crossed the Dardanelles and conquered Asia Minor.

In 333 B.C. he met and defeated the vaunted Persian army of Darius III at Issus, in a battle which had a lasting historical significance. Moving down the Mediterranean coast, he captured Sidon, Tyre, and Gaza. Reaching Egypt in 332 B.C., he was hailed by the oracle of Amon at Siwa as the divine pharaoh. He founded Alexandria, one of the more than 60 cities he established with this name, and then pushed on to the East. At Arbela (331 B.C.) he again defeated the Persians. When he reached Persia, he seized the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Ecbatana. He forged eastward until he reached the Indus River; here, with his troops worn out and threatening mutiny, he turned back toward the West. He died in Babylon in 323 B.C., a victim of fever, exhaustion, and dissipation, and master of an empire that stretched from the Danube to the Indus and south to the Egyptian Nile.¹

¹ Walter A. Elwell and Barry J. Beitzel, Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1988). 50-51.

ANGELS AND MESSENGERS — These terms come from a single Greek word, aggélous, (pronounced angellos). [… READ MORE]

Although both terms are well-known in the English language, confusion often arises when interpreting specific biblical passages. Fundamentally, the Greek word simply means a messenger, one who is sent in order to announce, teach, perform, or explore anything (Matthew 11:10; Luke 7:24; 9:52; Galatians 4:14; James 2:25; Joshua 6:17; Malachi 2:7). In 1 Corinthians 11:10, aggélous, is interpreted variably as spies or angels, good or evil, even demons. The angels of the seven churches are probably the bishops or pastors of those churches, the delegates or messengers of the churches of God (Revelation 1:20; 2:1, 8, 12, 18; 3:1, 7, 14).

But the term can also apply to celestial messengers, a being superior to man. God is represented as surrounded by a host of beings of a higher order than man. These He uses as His messengers and agents in administering the affairs of the world and in promoting the welfare of humans (Matthew 1:20; 18:10; 22:30; Acts 7:30). In 2 Peter 2:4 and Jude 1:6, some of the angels that sinned are said to have been cast down to hell. They are called the angels of the devil or Satan (Matthew 25:41; 2 Corinthians 12:7; Revelation 12:9). In Revelation 9:11, the angel of the bottomless pit is the destroying angel Abaddṓn (3), Abaddon.¹

¹ SpirosZodhiates, The Complete Word Study Dictionary: New Testament, electronic ed. (Chattanooga, TN: AMG Publishers, 2000).

ANTIPAS — Not Herod Antipas, ruler of Galilee during Jesus ministry. Little is known of this man.

ARMAGEDDON — (Greek Harmagedōn). A place where, according to Revelation 16:14–16, the kings of the entire world are to assemble for battle on the great day of God the Almighty, the final overthrow of all evil forces by the might and power of God at the end of time.[… READ MORE]

This name generally is thought to allude to the historic plain of Megiddo near Carmel (the Greek term is equivalent to Hebrew[har]megiddôn [mountain] of Megiddo), where Barak and Deborah defeated the Canaanites (Judges 5:19). This is also the place where Pharaoh Neco mortally wounded King Josiah of Judah (2 Kings 23:29–30; 2 Chronicles 35:22–24). Zechariah 12:11 refers to mourning for Hadadrimmon on the plain of Megiddo (perhaps Adad-remmon where Josiah was wounded). The Revised Standard Version also places Ahaziah’s death in the city of Megiddo (2 Kings 9:27). However, it is not clear why Armageddon might be called the "mountain(s) (Hebrewhar) of Megiddo," because Megiddo lies southeast of Mt. Carmel (plain of Megiddo, 2 Chronicles 35:22).¹

¹ Allen C. Myers, The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1987). 85.

ARTEMIS/DIANA (ärʹtəmĭs) — in Greek religion and mythology, Olympian goddess, daughter of Zeus and Leto and twin sister of Apollo.[… READ MORE]

Artemis’ early worship, especially at Ephesus, identified her as an earth goddess, similar to Astarte. In later legend, however, she was primarily a virgin huntress, goddess of wildlife and patroness of hunters. Of the many animals sacred to her, the bear was most important. Artemis valued her chastity so highly that she took terrible measures against anyone who even slightly threatened her (e.g., Actaeon). She was attended by nymphs, whose virginity she guarded as jealously as her own. She was also an important goddess in the life of women, concerned with marriage and with the young of all creatures. As the complement to Apollo, she was often considered a moon goddess and as such was identified with Selene and Hecate. In ancient Greece, the worship of Artemis was widespread. The Romans identified her with Diana. She is mentioned in the biblical book of Acts of the Apostles, where she appears to be in competition with the god of the Christians.¹

¹ Paul Lagassé and Columbia University, The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. (New York; Detroit: Columbia University Press; Sold and distributed by Gale Group, 2000).

ASIA MINOR — great peninsula, approximately 250,000 sq mi (647,500 sq km), extreme Western Asia, Asian Turkey, also called Anatolia.

It is washed by the Black Sea in the north, the Mediterranean Sea in the south, and the Aegean Sea in the west. The Black and Aegean seas are linked by the Sea of Marmara and the two straits of the Bosporus and the Dardanelles. Near the southern coast of Asia Minor are the Taurus Mountains; the rest of the peninsula is occupied by the Anatolian plateau, which is crossed by numerous mountains interspersed with lakes. In ancient times most Eastern and Western civilizations intersected in Asia Minor, for it was connected with Mesopotamia by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and with Greece by the Aegean and Mediterranean seas.

The Hittites established the first major civilization in Asia Minor about 1800 B.C.Beginning in the 8th cent. B.C. Greek colonies were established on the coast lands, and the Greeks thus came into contact with Lydia, Phrygia, and Troy. The conquest (6th cent.B.C.)of Asia Minor by the Persians led to the Persian Wars. Alexander the Great incorporated the region into his empire, and after his death it was divided into small states ruled by various Diadochi (rulers). It was reunified (2nd cent. B.C.)by the Romans. After A.D. 395 the country was re-Hellenized and became part of the Eastern Roman, or Byzantine Empire. It was prosperous until the early part of the 6th cent. when it was successively invaded by the Persians (616–26), Arabs (668), Seljuk Turks (1061), and Mongols (1243). The Mongols obliterated almost all traces of Hellenic civilization. Asia Minor was then gradually (13th–15th cent.) conquered by the Ottoman Turks. It remained part of the Ottoman Empire until the establishment of the Republic of Turkey after World War I.¹

¹ Paul Lagassé and Columbia University, The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. (New York; Detroit: Columbia University Press; Sold and distributed by Gale Group, 2000).

BAAL — the supreme male divinity of the Phoenician and Canaanite nations, as Ashtoreth was their supreme female divinity. [… READ MORE]

Some suppose Baal to correspond to the sun and Ashtoreth to the moon; others that Baal was Jupiter and Ashtoreth Venus. There can be no doubt of the antiquity of the worship of Baal. It prevailed in the time of Moses among the Moabites and Midianites, (Numbers 22:41), and through them spread to the Israelites(Numbers 25:3-18; Deuteronomy 4:3). In the times of the kings it became the religion of the court and people of the ten tribes, (1 Kings 16:31-33; 18:19, 22), and appears never to have been permanently abolished among them. (2 Kings 17:16). Temples were erected to Baal in Judah, (1 Kings 16:32), and he was worshipped with much ceremony(1 Kings 18:19, 26-28; 2 Kings 10:22). The attractiveness of this worship to the Jews undoubtedly grew out of its licentious character. We find this worship also in Phoenician colonies. The religion of the ancient British islands much resembled this ancient worship of Baal, and may have been derived from it. Nor need we hesitate to regard the Babylonian Bel, (Isaiah 46:1), or Belus, as essentially identical with Baal, though perhaps under some modified form. The plural, BAALIM, is found frequently, showing that he was probably worshipped under different compounds of the name. Example: BAAL-PEOR (lord of the opening, i.e., for others to join in the worship). The narrative (Numbers 25) seems clearly to show that this form of Baal-worship was connected with licentious rites.¹

¹ William Smith, Smith’s Bible Dictionary (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1997).

BABYLON — the Greek form of Babel; Semitic form Babilu, meaning The Gate of God. In the Assyrian tablets it means The city of the dispersion of the tribes. [… READ MORE]

The monumental list of its kings reaches back to B.C. 2300, and includes Khammurabi, or Amraphel, the contemporary of Abraham. It stood on the Euphrates, about 200 miles above its junction with the Tigris, which flowed through its midst and divided it into two almost equal parts. The Elamites invaded Chaldea (i.e., Lower Mesopotamia, or Shinar, and Upper Mesopotamia, or Accad, now combined into one) and held it in subjection. At length Khammurabi delivered it from the foreign yoke, and founded the new empire of Chaldea, making Babylon the capital of the united kingdom. This city gradually grew in extent and grandeur, but in process of time it became subject to Assyria. On the fall of Nineveh (B.C. 606) it threw off the Assyrian yoke, and became the capital of the growing Babylonian empire. Under Nebuchadnezzar it became one of the most splendid cities of the ancient world.

After passing through various stages, the city was occupied by Cyrus, king of Elam, B.C. 538, who issued a decree permitting the Jews to return to their own land (Ezra 1). It then ceased to be the capital of an empire. It was again and again visited by hostile armies, till its inhabitants were all driven from their homes, and the city became a complete desolation, its very site being forgotten from among men.

On the west bank of the Euphrates, about 50 miles south of Bagdad, there is found a series of artificial mounds of vast extent. These are the ruins of this once famous proud city. These ruins are principally (1) the great mound called Babil by the Arabs. This was probably the noted Temple of Belus, which was a pyramid about 480 feet high. (2) The Kasr (i.e., the palace). This was the great palace of Nebuchadnezzar. It is almost a square, each side of which is about 700 feet long. The little town of Hillah, near the site of Babylon, is built almost wholly of bricks taken from this single mound. (3) A lofty mound, on the summit of which stands a modern tomb called Amranibn-Ali. This is probably the most ancient portion of the remains of the city, and represents the ruins of the famous hanging-gardens, or perhaps of some royal palace. The utter desolation of the city once called The glory of kingdoms (Isaiah 13:19) was foretold by the prophets (Isaiah 13:4–22; Jeremiah 25:12; 50:2, 3; Daniel 2:31–38).

The site of the ancient city of Babylon in modern Iraq¹

The Babylon mentioned in 1 Peter 5:13 was not Rome, as some have thought, but the literal city of Babylon, which was inhabited by many Jews at the time Peter wrote.

In Revelation 14:8; 16:19; 17:5; and 18:2, Babylon represents the ancient power of God’s enemy, Satan, and the one who persecutes His people. The literal Babylon was the beginner and supporter of tyranny and idolatry … This city and its whole empire were taken by the Persians under Cyrus; the Persians were subdued by the Macedonians, and the Macedonians by the Romans. It was her method to adopt the worship of the false deities she had conquered; so that by her own act she represents the heiress and successor of all the Babylonian idolatry, and of all that was introduced into it by the immediate successors of Babylon, and consequently of all the idolatry of the earth. Mystical Babylon, is that great city which reigns over the kings of the earth (Revelation 17:18).²

¹ Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, ed. Chad Brand, Charles Draper, Archie England, Steve Bond, E. Ray Clendenen, Trent C. Butler and Bill Latta (Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers, 2003). 159.

² M. G. Easton, Easton’s Bible Dictionary (Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc., 1996).

BALAAM — a non-Israelite prophet known from both biblical and extra-biblical sources as a person from the region of Transjordan. [… READ MORE] His fame in the culture of the ancient world places him alongside Noah, Daniel, and Job as a folk hero in the repertoire of the storyteller.

Balaam appears commonly in the Old Testament and regularly in the New Testament as an example of an evil artist, a prophet who would sell his skill for the proper price without reference to the Word of God supposedly represented by his words (Deuteronomy 23:4, 5; Joshua 13:22; 24:9, 10; Nehemiah 13:2; Micah 6:5; 2 Peter 2:15; Jude 11; Revelation 2:14). In Numbers 22:21-35, Balaam, known as a seer of the gods, cannot see as well as his donkey. Moreover, Balaam carries the responsibility for causing Israel to sin at Baal-peor (Numbers 31:8, 16). In contrast, the narrative in Numbers 22-24 holds Balaam in a favorable light. When the antagonist, Balak, hires Balaam to curse the armies of Israel so that his defense against the Israelite threat would be manageable, Balaam responds with an appeal to his prophetic virtue. He can offer Balak only the word given him by God for the occasion. Balaam finishes the scene with an affirmation of his prophetic virtue: ‘Did I not tell your messengers whom you sent to me, ‘If Balak should give me his house full of silver and gold, I would not be able to go beyond the word of the Lord, to do either good or bad of my own will; what the Lord speaks, that will I speak’?’ (Numbers 24:12-13).¹

¹ Paul J. Achtemeier and Society of Biblical Literature, Harper’s Bible Dictionary, 1st ed. (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1985). 90.

CALVARY — The name occurs once only in the King James Version, in Luke. 23:33, and not at all in most English versions.[… READ MORE]

The word comes from the Vulgate, where the Latin calvaria translates the Greek kranion; both words translate from the Aramaic gulgoltâ, the ‘Golgotha’ of Matthew 27:33, meaning ‘skull’. Three possible reasons for such a name have been propounded: because skulls were found there; because it was a place of execution; or because the site in some way resembled a skull. All we know of the site from Scripture is that it was outside Jerusalem, fairly conspicuous, probably not far from a city gate and a highway, and that a garden containing a tomb lay nearby.

Two Jerusalem localities are today pointed out as the site of the Lord’s cross and tomb; the one is the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, the other Gordon’s Calvary, commonly known as the Garden Tomb. Unfortunately it has always proved difficult to debate the question objectively; in some quarters the identification one accepts is almost the touchstone of one’s orthodoxy. The Church of the Holy Sepulcher marks the site of a temple to Venus which the emperor Constantine removed, understanding that it stood over the sacred site. The tradition thus goes back at least to the 4th century. But in view of the operations and activities of Titus in the 1st century and Hadrian in the 2nd, the identification must still be viewed as precarious. It has at least been clarified by recent excavations that the traditional site lay outside the city walls in the time of Christ. On the other hand, the evidence of the church itself may indicate a tomb of slightly too late a date to be authentic.

The Garden Tomb was first pointed out in 1849; a rock formation there resembles a skull; and admittedly the site accords with the biblical data. But there is no tradition or anything else to support its claim. The more ancient site is much more likely; but any identification must remain conjectural.¹

¹ D. F. Payne, Calvary, New Bible Dictionary, ed. D. R. W. Wood, I. H. Marshall, A. R. Millard, J. I. Packer and D. J. Wiseman, 3rd ed. (Leicester, England; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1996). 160.

CONSTANTINE – 288?–337, Roman emperor, born in Naissus (present-day Niš, Yugoslavia). He was the son of CONSTANTIUS I and HELENA and was named in full Flavius Valerius Constantinus.[… READ MORE]

Rise to Power. When his father was made caesar (subemperor), Constantine was left at the court of the emperor Diocletian, where he was under the watchful eye of Galerius, who was caesar with Constantius. When Diocletian and Maximian resigned in 305, Constantius and Galerius became emperors.

Constantius requested that Constantine be sent to him in Britain, and Galerius reluctantly complied. Constantius died at York the next year. There, his soldiers proclaimed Constantine emperor, but much rivalry for the vacated office ensued. In Italy, Maxentius, supported by the Romans and by his father Maximian, vied with Severus and Galerius. Constantine, accepting the lesser title of caesar from Galerius, remained aloof while Maxentius and Maximian defeated Severus and Galerius.

Constantine made an alliance with Maximian, marrying his daughter Fausta and recognizing Maxentius after a fashion. When Maximian, in dispute with his son, fled to Constantine, Constantine received and sheltered him until Maximian, in an attempt to regain the throne, undertook (310) a revolt against Constantine’s rule in Gaul. Unsuccessful against Constantine, Maximian was forced to commit suicide.

Constantine, having already declared against Maxentius and ignoring the fact that Galerius had recognized Licinius in the East, now considered himself emperor. When Galerius died in 310, still another claimant to the imperial throne appeared in Maximin (died 313), who allied himself with Maxentius against the alliance of Licinius and Constantine. While Licinius attacked Maximin, Constantine moved into Italy against Maxentius. The rivals for Italy met (312) at the Milvian or Mulvian Bridge over the Tiber near Rome. Before the battle Constantine, who was already sympathetic toward Christianity, is said by Eusebius of Caesarea to have seen in the sky a flaming cross inscribed with the words, In this sign thou shalt conquer. He adopted the cross and was victorious. Maxentius was routed and killed. The battle is regarded as a turning point for Christianity.

In 313, Constantine and his fellow emperor, Licinius, met at Milan and there issued the so-called Edict of Milan, confirming Galerius’ edict of 309, which stated that Christianity would be tolerated throughout the empire. The edict in effect made Christianity a lawful religion, although it did not, as is sometimes believed, make Christianity the official state religion.

No longer having Maximin to contend with, Licinius challenged Constantine, and a brief struggle followed. Constantine, victorious, took (315) control over Greece and the Balkans, and the uneasy peace that followed lasted until 324, when Licinius again vied with Constantine. This time Licinius lost his throne and ultimately his life.

A Christian Empire. Constantine was now sole ruler of the empire, and in a reign of peace he set about rebuilding the strength of old Rome. Constantine continued to tolerate paganism and even to encourage the imperial cult. At the same time, however, he endeavored to unify and strengthen Christianity.

In 314 he convened a synod at Arles to regulate the Church in the West, and in 325 he convened and presided over a council at Nicaea to deal with the troubles over Arianism. Thus Constantine evolved the idea of the ecumenical council. In 330 he moved the capital to Byzantium, which was rebuilt as Constantinople, a city predominantly Christian and dedicated to the Virgin. He seems to have favored compromise with Arianism, and in 335, in defiance of the Council of Tyre, he exiled St. Athanasius.

As the founder of the Christian empire, Constantine began a new era. He was an absolute ruler, and his reign saw the culmination of the tendency toward despotic rule, centralized bureaucracy, and separation of military and civil powers evolved by Diocletian. Constantine’s legal reforms were marked by great humanity, perhaps a result of Christian influence. Though he had done much to unify the empire, at his death Constantine divided it again, providing for his three surviving sons and also to some extent for the sons of his half-brother. These nephews were soon killed (though others, notably Julian the Apostate, survived), but complex contests ensued between Constans I, Constantine II, and Constantius II.

Historians differ greatly in their assessments of Constantine’s motives and the depth of his Christian conviction. Early Christian writers portray him as a devout convert, although they have difficulty explaining his execution in 320 (on adultery charges) of Crispus, his son by his first wife, and Fausta, his wife. Some later historians see him as a political genius, expediently using Christianity to unify his empire. An intermediate interpretation pictures him as a pagan gradually converted to Christianity (he was baptized on his deathbed), using his new belief for personal ends much as earlier emperors had used the imperial cult.¹

¹ Paul Lagassé and Columbia University, The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. (New York; Detroit: Columbia University Press; Sold and distributed by Gale Group, 2000).

DANIEL — refers to the man of the book of Daniel. [… READ MORE]

This young man of nobility was taken captive by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, and elevated to high rank in the Babylonian and Persian kingdoms. The Babylonians sought to remove all vestiges of Daniel’s nationality and religion. For this reason they sought to change the name of Daniel to Belteshazzar (Daniel 1:7; 2:26; 4:8–9, 18–19; 5:12; 10:1).

Daniel was transported from Judah to Babylon in his early youth at the battle of Carchemish, 605 B.C. The text does not indicate his precise age. Daniel was given the name Belteshazzar and his three Hebrew companions, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, were named Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego (Daniel 1:6–7). He was trained in the arts, letters, and wisdom in the Babylonian capital. Eventually, he rose to high rank among the Babylonian men of wisdom. He was active throughout the long reign of Nebuchadnezzar (B.C.604–562). No mention is made in Daniel of the times of Evil-Merodach (561–560 B.C.), Neriglissar (B.C.559–555), or Labashi-Marduk (B.C.555). However, much information is provided concerning Daniel’s involvement during the reign of Nabonidus (B.C.555–539). While Nabonidus was absent from his country for extended periods of time, he put his son Belshazzar in charge of the affairs of government.

Daniel was in Babylon when the forces of Cyrus, the Persian, captured Babylon. Successively, Daniel was a high governmental official during the reigns of Cyrus (539–529 B.C.) and Cambyses (B.C.529–522). He served also during his old age into the reign of Darius I, the son of Hystaspes (B.C.522–486). Daniel would probably have celebrated his one hundredth birthday during the reign of Darius. He had outstanding physical attraction. He demonstrated at an early age propensities of knowledge, wisdom, and leadership. In addition to his wisdom, he was skilled in dream interpretation. Throughout his entire life he demonstrated an unshakable faith in his God. It took courage to resist the temptations and threats that confronted him repeatedly. He recognized that God was continuously judging him. He remained faithful.¹

Daniel in the Lions’ Den

¹ Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, ed. Chad Brand, Charles Draper, Archie England, Steve Bond, E. Ray Clendenen, Trent C. Butler and Bill Latta (Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers, 2003). 385-86.

DIOCLETIAN (GAIUS AURELIUS VALERIUS DIOCLETIANUS) – (245–313), Roman Emperor from 284 to 305.[… READ MORE]

Diocles, who was born of humble parents at Salona in Dalmatia, took up a military career, serving with distinction under Probus and Aurelian. On 17 Sept. 284, on the murder of Numerian, the army proclaimed him Emperor at Chalcedon. He was defeated in the ensuing hostilities against Carinus, Numerian’s joint-Emperor; but as Carinus was promptly slain by his own officers, Diocletian (as he now chose to call himself) became undisputed master. Endowed with immense energy, great gifts of organization, and a mind dominated by logic, he made it his main purpose to stabilize and reform the Empire. To this end, he created an absolute monarchy, centering all power in himself as the semi-Divine ruler, and making his palace the domusdivina and his own person sacred; and from that time forward the Senate was permanently in a subordinate position. In 286 he associated Maximian in the government as co-Augustus, taking the Eastern Empire for himself and giving Maximian the West. In 293 he turned the ‘imperial college’ into a tetrarchy by the creation of two ‘Caesars’, Constantius Chlorus and Galerius. He further divided the Empire into twelve dioceses, each consisting of several provinces, which, from the 4th century formed the basis of the territorial organization of the Church. With this strong organization, the Empire was consolidated and somewhat extended. Diocletian also introduced far-reaching military, administrative, fiscal, and economic reforms, including the celebrated Edict on Maximum Prices of 301. On 1 May 305 he formally abdicated at Nicomedia, compelling his reluctant colleague Maximian to take the same step. He lived his last years in retirement at his large palace at Spalato (Split).

For the greater part of his reign the Christians seem to have enjoyed the tranquility which had been theirs since the Rescript of Gallienus (260). Only the Manichees were repressed, by an edict of c.298 (dated 31 March but without the year), as a sect lately originating in Persia. It was in 303 that the Great Persecution broke out. An edict issued at Nicomedia on 23 February enjoined the demolition of churches and the burning of Christian books. Some incidents which followed (fires in the palace at Nicomedia, reports of unrest at Melitene and in Syria) led to further edicts. The next two were directed solely against the clergy. The punishment inflicted for resistance was imprisonment, torture, and, in some cases, death. A fourth edict issued early in 304 required sacrifice to the gods by all citizens. The persecution resulted in a considerable number of martyrs. Its severity varied in different parts of the Empire according to the changing fortunes of the Imperial rulers in the next decade. Its final collapse was due to Constantine’s defeat of Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge on 28 October 312 and the ‘Edict of Milan’ early in the next year.¹

¹ F. L. Cross and Elizabeth A. Livingstone, The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, 3rd ed. rev. (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005). 486.

DOMITIAN — Roman emperor (A.D. 81–96) who persecuted both Jews and Christians. Tradition says that under Domitian the apostle John was banished to Patmos, where he wrote the Book of Revelation (Revelation 1:9).¹

(Titus Flavius Domitianus), A.D. 51–A.D. 96, Roman emperor (A.D. 81–A.D. 96), son of Vespasian. Although intended as the heir to his older brother, TITUS, he was given no important posts. On Titus’ death he succeeded to the throne and proved himself at once proud and more absolutist than his father. In his first years, however, he governed in the interests of order and public welfare. Except for his victory in A.D. 83 over the Chatti, a German tribe, Domitian’s campaigns were only partially successful. He recalled (A.D. 84) Agricola from his successful campaign in Britain, probably because he thought it would overtax the empire. As time went on, Domitian became more despotic, particularly after the rebellion in A.D. 89 of Antonius Saturninus, governor of Upper Germany. His despotism caused plots against him, which brought on a reign of terror during the last years of his rule. Finally his wife, Domitia, had a freedman, Stephanus, stab him. Nerva succeeded. Tacitus and Juvenal describe Domitian’s reign of terror with bitterness, but modern historians recognize that he governed the empire well.²

¹ Walter A. Elwell and Barry J. Beitzel, Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1988). 639.

² Paul Lagassé and Columbia University, The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. (New York; Detroit: Columbia University Press; Sold and distributed by Gale Group, 2000).

ELIJAH — Personal name meaning my God is Yah. The prophet from the ninth century B.C. from Tishbe of Gilead in the Northern Kingdom has been called the grandest and the most romantic character that Israel ever produced (1 Kings 17:1–2 Kings 2:18). He was a complex man of the desert who counseled kings.

In his role as God’s prophet, Elijah told Ahab, Israel’s king, that there would be no rain or dew apart from his approval (1 Kings 17:1). Immediately after the prophecy, he retreated to the brook Cherith where he was fed by ravens. His next refuge was Zarephath where he performed the miracle of raising the widow’s dead son (1 Kings 17:17–24). Here he was first called a man of God.

Later, on Mount Carmel Elijah confronted 450 prophets of Baal and 400 prophets of Asherah(1 Kings 18:19–40). The contest was to determine the true God. The false prophets called on their gods, and Elijah called on His God to see which would rain fire from heaven. After the false prophets failed to hear from their gods, Elijah wet the wood on his altar to the true God by pouring four jars of water over it three times. In response of Elijah’s prayer, Yahweh rained fire from heaven to consume the wet wood. As a result of their deception, Elijah ordered the false prophets killed.

Then, from Carmel, Elijah prayed. He sent his servant seven times to see if rain was coming. The seventh time a cloud the size of a hand appeared on the horizon. Ahab was told to flee before the storm. In a God-given burst of speed, Elijah outran his chariot and the storm that arrived at Jezreel.

Jezebel, Ahab’s wife, planned to kill Elijah for slaughtering the false prophets, so Elijah retreated to Judah and finally Mount Horeb. There he observed the power of the wind, earthquake, and fire; but the Lord was not seen in these forces. In a small voice the Lord commanded him to go anoint Hazael king of Syria, Jehu king of Israel, and Elisha as his own successor (1 Kings 19:1–17).

Entrance to Elijah’s cave near Tyre.

Relationship to Messiah:

Malachi promised God would send Elijah the prophet before the coming day of the LORD (Mal. 4:5). John the Baptist was spoken of as the one who would go before Messiah in the spirit and power of Elijah (Luke 1:17 HCSB). Jesus said that there was no one greater than John the Baptist, and that he was the fulfillment of Malachi’s prophecy (Matthew 11:7-13). John the Baptist was, in a sense, this prophesied Elijah (Matthew 11:14). John personally denied that he was literally Elijah reincarnate (John 1:21, 25). Some considered Jesus to be Elijah (Matthew 16:14; Mark 6:15).

Elijah appeared along with Moses on the Mount of Transfiguration with Jesus to discuss His departure (Matthew 17:4; Mark 9:5; Luke 9:33).

The two witnesses referred to in Revelation 11:6 are not identified by name, but their capacity to close the sky so that it does not rain (HCSB) leads many to conclude they are Moses and Elijah.¹

¹ Nelson Price, Elijah, ed. Chad Brand et al., Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary (Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers, 2003), 478–480.

ENOCH — Old TestamentPatriarch.[… READ MORE]