1st and 2nd Peter Confirming the Faith

By Practical Christianity Foundation

Confirming the faith Written by one of the most prominent disciples of our Lord Jesus Christ, Peter’s two Epistles focus on the commitment and the faith of Christians as they continue to live and serve God regardless of conditions or circumstances.
The theme of the first letter is Peter’s exhortation to believers to remain true to their Savior, despite their suffering at the hands of the Roman emperor. Christians were fleeing Rome and Peter wrote to Christians who were scattered throughout Asia Minor. In these hard times, underscored Peter, Christians should remain steadfast in the strength of the Holy Spirit. (1 Peter 5:9-11) The first letter provides much needed assurance to believers that, amid persecutions and suffering, there is hope.
In the second letter Peter defined his relationship with Jesus Christ as both bondservant and apostle. As Christ’s bondservant, he declared his submission and obedience to the demands, direction, and guidance of his Lord. Wherever the Lord called him to go, whatever his Master asked him to do, Peter would obey. As Christ’s apostle, Peter identified his God-given commission to go into all the world and make disciples. He addressed this letter to those who, like him, had obtained the same gift of faith by the work of the Holy Spirit in their lives. This faith was given to the believers by the grace of God through the righteousness of Jesus Christ.
Two powerful and inspired letters sent by Peter the apostle of Jesus Christ to all believers to confirm their faith in Jesus Christ, to encourage them to grow in knowledge and understanding, and mature in the knowledge of the Truth so that they might be able to give defense for the lasting hope they have in Jesus Christ and His finished work on Calvary.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Practical Christianity Foundation
• Release date: Aug 21, 2020
• ISBN: 9781600980732

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Notes

From the conception of the Practical Christianity Foundation, it has been the goal of the organization to convey the truth in Scripture through verse-by-verse devotional studies such as this one. As part of that goal, we agree in an attempt neither to prove nor disprove any traditional or alternative interpretations, beliefs, or doctrines, but rather to allow the Holy Spirit to reveal the truth contained within the Scriptures. Any interpretations relating to ambiguous passages that are not directly and specifically verifiable by other scriptural references are simply presented in what we believe to be the most likely intention of the message based upon those things that we are specifically told. In those instances, our conclusions are noted as interpretive, and such analyses should not be understood as doctrinal positions that we are attempting to champion.

This study is divided into sections, usually between six and eight verses, and each section concludes with a Notes/Applications passage, which draws practical insight from the related verses that can be applied to contemporary Christian living. The intent is that the reader will complete one section per day, will gain a greater understanding of the verses within that passage, and will daily be challenged toward a deeper commitment to our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. Also included at certain points within the text are Dig Deeper boxes, which are intended to assist readers who desire to invest additional time to study topics that relate to the section in which these boxes appear. Our prayer is that this study will impact the lives of all believers, regardless of age, ethnicity, or education.

Each of PCF’s original projects is a collaborative effort of many writers, content editors, grammatical editors, transcribers, researchers, readers, and other contributors, and as such, we present them only as products of the Practical Christianity Foundation as a whole. These works are not for the recognition or acclamation of any particular individual but are written simply as a means to uphold and fulfill the greater purpose of our Mission Statement, which is to exalt the Holy Name of God Almighty by declaring the redemptive message of His Son, the Lord Jesus Christ, to the lost global community and equipping the greater Christian community through the communication of the Holy Word of God in its entirety through every appropriate means available.

Practical Christianity Foundation

Value Statements

1.We value the Holy Name of God and will strive to exalt Him through godly living, committed service, and effective communication. As long as you live, you, your children, and your grandchildren must fear the Lord your God. All of you must obey all his laws and commands that I’m giving you, and you will live a long time (Deuteronomy 6:2).

2.We value the redemptive work of the Lord Jesus Christ for a lost world and will strive to communicate His redemptive message to the global community. Then Jesus said to them, ‘So wherever you go in the world, tell everyone the Good News’ (Mark 16:15).

3.We value the Holy Word of God and will strive to communicate it in its entirety. ¹⁶Every Scripture passage is inspired by God. All of them are useful for teaching, pointing out errors, correcting people, and training them for a life that has God’s approval. ¹⁷They equip God’s servants so that they are completely prepared to do good things (2 Timothy 3:16–17).

4.We value spiritual growth in God’s people and will strive to enhance that process through the effective communication of God’s Holy Word, encouraging them to be lovers of the truth. But grow in the good will and knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. Glory belongs to him now and for that eternal day! Amen (2 Peter 3:18).

5.We value the equipping ministry of the church of the Lord Jesus Christ and will strive to provide resources for that ministry by the communication of God’s Holy Word through every appropriate means available. ¹¹He also gave apostles, prophets, missionaries, as well as pastors and teachers as gifts to his church. ¹²Their purpose is to prepare God’s people to serve and to build up the body of Christ (Ephesians 4:11–12).

These two epistles were penned by one of Jesus’ most dynamic disciples. Peter was one of the original twelve disciples chosen by Jesus Christ at the beginning of His public ministry, and he continued with Jesus until His ascension. In the Gospels, Peter is mentioned more than any other disciple and was the predominant leader of this small group. Originally, he was known as Simon (in Greek) or Simeon (in Hebrew) until Jesus renamed him Peter, meaning stone.

⁴¹Andrew at once found his brother Simon and told him, We have found the Messiah (which means Christ).

⁴²Andrew brought Simon to Jesus. Jesus looked at Simon and said, You are Simon, son of John. Your name will be Cephas (which means Peter). (John 1:41–42)

Peter originally lived in Bethsaida (view image) and later moved to a home in Capernaum (view image), which became the Galilean (view image) headquarters for Jesus and His disciples.¹ Peter’s later denial of his Lord the night before Jesus’ crucifixion marked the low point in this disciple’s life. After the resurrection, Jesus restored him to His fellowship, and Peter became a bold leader in the early church.

Before he was chosen by Jesus to be a disciple, Peter was a fisherman. When Jesus commanded Peter to leave his business and follow Him to become a fisher of people, he did so immediately (Matthew 4:18–20). He and his brother, Andrew, were in the fishing business with John and James who also became disciples.

The first letter was penned around A.D. 64 during the time of Nero’s (view image) persecution of Christians, who Nero accused of setting fire to Rome (view image). The intensity of this deadly confrontation was the motivation that drove Peter to pen this letter to the churches of Asia Minor (view image). One of the curiosities that may reflect the hostile environment in which this letter was written is Peter’s indication that he was writing this letter from Babylon (view image) (1 Peter 5:13). There is no evidence from early church literature that would suggest that Peter ever went to Babylon. Although it is possible that he did venture to Mesopotamia, it seems more likely that he was writing from Rome, the imperial city, but used the term Babylon as a code word in order to maintain the safety and anonymity of the Christians that were being pursued throughout the empire.² This term aptly fit the idolatrous character of the city (See John’s use of Babylon in Revelation 17–18).

The theme of Peter’s first letter is an exhortation to fellow Christians to remain true to their Savior despite their suffering at the emperor’s hand. Christians were fleeing Rome, and Peter wrote to Christians who were scattered throughout Asia Minor. In these hard times, believers were encouraged to remain steadfast in the strength of the Holy Spirit. ⁹Be firm in the faith and resist him, knowing that other believers throughout the world are going through the same kind of suffering. ¹⁰God, who shows you his kindness and who has called you through Christ Jesus to his eternal glory, will restore you, strengthen you, make you strong, and support you as you suffer for a little while. ¹¹Power belongs to him forever. Amen (1 Peter 5:9–11).

Peter’s second letter looks forward beyond the suffering that continued to plague the Christian community. He continued his call to develop strong Christian character that could prevail in spite of hostile circumstances. Then, he warned of the dangers presented when false teachers would further threaten the fortitude of the faithful. Through it all, Peter eagerly looked forward to the consummation of his faith in the second coming of Jesus Christ.

It is believed that Peter wrote this letter knowing that he would soon face his own executioners and join other victims of Nero’s (view image) rage. He spent the final years of his life in Rome (view image). According to tradition, Peter was crucified with his head downwards, declaring himself unworthy to be crucified as his Lord, and was buried in the Vatican, near the triumphal way.³

Thus, it seems that Peter penned his second letter shortly after his first, possibly A.D. 65–66. Peter refers to his first letter in 2 Peter 3:1, confirming the authentic relationship between these two powerfully composed epistles. Even today, these letters provide much needed assurance to believers that, even though there continues to be persecution and suffering, there is always hope. They speak of suffering for the sake of the Lord and Savior and of allowing that suffering to count for His glory. Peter’s counsel provides profound insight and instruction to Christians throughout the ages who suffer for the name of Christ.

1.Practical Christianity Foundation, Mark: Jesus Christ, Love in Action (Holiday, FL: Green Key Books, 2003) 33.

2.New Geneva Study Bible, ed. R.C. Sproul (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1995), 1967.

3.Robert Jamieson, Andrew R. Fausset, and David Brown, Jamieson, Fausset, and Brown’s Commentary (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1961), 1461.

Matthew 4:18–20

¹⁸As he was walking along the Sea of Galilee, he saw two brothers, Simon (called Peter) and Andrew. They were throwing a net into the sea because they were fishermen. ¹⁹ Jesus said to them, Come, follow me! I will teach you how to catch people instead of fish. ²⁰ They immediately left their nets and followed him.

1 Peter 5:13

¹³ Your sister church in Babylon, chosen by God, and my son Mark send you greetings.

2 Peter 3:1

¹ Dear friends, this is the second letter I’m writing to you. In both letters I’m trying to refresh your memory.

ANDREW — A fisherman who followed John the Baptist and then became one of the first disciples of Jesus (John 1:35–40; in lists of the apostles he appears among the first four; Matt. 10:2–4; Mark 3:16–19; Luke 6:14–16; Acts 1:13). According to John, it was he who led his brother Simon Peter to Jesus (vv. 41–42). The Synoptic Gospels indicate that Andrew’s call came as he and Simon were fishing at the Sea of Galilee near Capernaum with their business partners Zebedee and his sons James and John (Mark 1:16–20; Luke 5:10).

It was Andrew who informed Jesus about the boy with the loaves and fishes prior to the feeding of the five thousand (John 6:8). On another occasion he relayed to Jesus the inquiries of the Greeks concerning the Messiah (12:22). During the discourse at the Mount of Olives he was among those disciples who asked Jesus about the meaning of the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of time (Mark 13:3).

According to the apocryphal Acts of Andrew he died on a cross; various traditions developed regarding the disposition of his body. Andrew has come to be regarded as the patron saint of both Scotland and Russia.¹

¹ Myers, Allen C. The Eerdmans Bible dictionary1987 : 55. Print.

ASIA MINOR — great peninsula, approximately 250,000 sq mi (647,500 sq km), extreme Western Asia, Asian Turkey, also called Anatolia.

It is washed by the Black Sea in the north, the Mediterranean Sea in the south, and the Aegean Sea in the west. The Black and Aegean seas are linked by the Sea of Marmara and the two straits of the Bosporus and the Dardanelles. Near the southern coast of Asia Minor are the Taurus Mountains; the rest of the peninsula is occupied by the Anatolian plateau, which is crossed by numerous mountains interspersed with lakes. In ancient times most Eastern and Western civilizations intersected in Asia Minor, for it was connected with Mesopotamia by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and with Greece by the Aegean and Mediterranean seas.

The Hittites established the first major civilization in Asia Minor about 1800 B.C. Beginning in the 8th cent. B.C. Greek colonies were established on the coastlands, and the Greeks thus came into contact with Lydia, Phrygia, and Troy. The conquest (6th cent. B.C.) of Asia Minor by the Persians led to the Persian Wars. Alexander the Great incorporated the region into his empire, and after his death it was divided into small states ruled by various Diadochi (rulers). It was reunified (2nd cent. B.C.) by the Romans. After A.D. 395 the country was re-Hellenized and became part of the Eastern Roman, or Byzantine Empire. It was prosperous until the early part of the 6th cent. when it was successively invaded by the Persians (616–26), Arabs (668), Seljuk Turks (1061), and Mongols (1243). The Mongols obliterated almost all traces of Hellenic civilization. Asia Minor was then gradually (13th–15th cent.) conquered by the Ottoman Turks. It remained part of the Ottoman Empire until the establishment of the Republic of Turkey after World War I.¹

¹ Paul Lagassé and Columbia University, The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. (New York; Detroit: Columbia University Press; Sold and distributed by Gale Group, 2000).

BABYLON IN THE NEW TESTAMENT — In the Book of Revelation the world in rebellion against God is called Babylon. The Old Testament prophets often prophesied the fall of Babylon, the capital of an empire that destroyed God’s city, Jerusalem, and carried His people away as captives. So in Revelation Babylon is a word-picture for a society that persecuted God’s people but that God will eventually destroy.

When the Book of Revelation was written, Babylon may have been a kind of code name for pre-Christian Rome, which was built on seven hills (Revelation 17:9) and which was already persecuting the church. Since that time, generations of Christians have been able to identify their own Babylons and have found reassurance in Revelation’s message.

In Revelation 14:8 Babylon’s power to make people resist God’s claims in the gospel is admitted, but its doom is certain. In Revelation 16:19 Babylon is a great city that falls because God remembers its sin and brings His punishment. Throughout chapters 17–18 Babylon is prominent, pictured as a prostitute because it seduces people away from God with its glamor. But it is a false union that cannot satisfy.

Babylon stands over against the church, the New Jerusalem (Revelation 21:2), which is the bride, the Lamb’s wife (Revelation 21:9). God reveals the mystery or divine truth (Revelation. 17:5) about it and all such manmade societies that are organized independently of God. Its fall is celebrated by God’s people(Revelation 18:20; 19:1–5).

In Matthew 1:11–12, 17, Judah’s captivity in Babylon is mentioned in Jesus’ genealogy. In Acts 7:43 Babylon appears in Stephen’s famous speech about the history of the Jewish people. In 1 Peter 5:13 Babylon probably refers to the city of Rome.¹

¹ Youngblood, Ronald F., F. F. Bruce, and R. K. Harrison, Thomas Nelson Publishers, eds. Nelson’s new illustrated Bible dictionary 1995 : n. pag. Print.

BALAAM — a non-Israelite prophet known from both biblical and extra-biblical sources as a person from the region of Transjordan. [… READ MORE] His fame in the culture of the ancient world places him alongside Noah, Daniel, and Job as a folk hero in the repertoire of the storyteller.

Balaam appears commonly in the Old Testament and regularly in the New Testament as an example of an evil artist, a prophet who would sell his skill for the proper price without reference to the Word of God supposedly represented by his words (Deuteronomy 23:4, 5; Joshua 13:22; 24:9, 10; Nehemiah 13:2; Micah 6:5; 2 Peter 2:15; Jude 11; Revelation 2:14). In Numbers 22:21-35, Balaam, known as a seer of the gods, cannot see as well as his donkey. Moreover, Balaam carries the responsibility for causing Israel to sin at Baal-peor (Numbers 31:8, 16).

In contrast, the narrative in Numbers 22-24 holds Balaam in a favorable light. When the antagonist, Balak, hires Balaam to curse the armies of Israel so that his defense against the Israelite threat would be manageable, Balaam responds with an appeal to his prophetic virtue. He can offer Balak only the word given him by God for the occasion. Balaam finishes the scene with an affirmation of his prophetic virtue: ‘Did I not tell your messengers whom you sent to me, ‘If Balak should give me his house full of silver and gold, I would not be able to go beyond the word of the Lord, to do either good or bad of my own will; what the Lord speaks, that will I speak’?’ (Numbers 24:12-13).¹

¹ Paul J. Achtemeier and Society of Biblical Literature, Harper’s Bible Dictionary, 1st ed. (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1985). 90.

BETHSAIDA — Place-name meaning house of fish. The home of Andrew, Peter, and Philip (John 1:44; 12:21), located on the northeast side of the Sea of Galilee. This town was rebuilt under Philip the tetrarch, one of the sons of Herod the Great, who named it Julius in honor of the Emperor Augustus’ daughter. Near here Jesus fed the 5,000 (Luke 9:10) and healed a blind man (Mark 8:22). Jesus pronounced judgment upon Bethsaida for its lack of response to His message and miracles (Matt. 11:21; Luke 10:13). The site of Bethsaida has yet to be identified archaeologically. Some scholars do propose two sites named Bethsaida: the one northeast of the Sea of Galilee, as already discussed; and another, west of the Sea of Galilee, close to Capernaum. This postulation is based on Mark 6:45, where following the feeding of the 5,000 outside Bethsaida, Jesus tells His disciples to sail to Bethsaida. However, there is no contemporary mention of two Bethsaida’s, and the Mark 6 text can just as easily refer to a short trip to the known city of Bethsaida-Julias as to an unknown town.¹

¹ Vermillion, William H. Bethsaida. Ed. Chad Brand et al. Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary 2003 : 196. Print.

CALVARY — The name occurs once only in the King James Version, in Luke. 23:33, and not at all in most English versions. The word comes from the Vulgate, where the Latin calvaria translates the Greek kranion; both words translate from the Aramaic gulgoltâ, the ‘Golgotha’ of Matthew 27:33, meaning ‘skull’. Three possible reasons for such a name have been propounded: because skulls were found there; because it was a place of execution; or because the site in some way resembled a skull. All we know of the site from Scripture is that it was outside Jerusalem, fairly conspicuous, probably not far from a city gate and a highway, and that a garden containing a tomb lay nearby.

Two Jerusalem localities are today pointed out as the site of the Lord’s cross and tomb; the one is the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, the other Gordon’s Calvary, commonly known as the Garden Tomb. Unfortunately it has always proved difficult to debate the question objectively; in some quarters the identification one accepts is almost the touchstone of one’s orthodoxy. The Church of the Holy Sepulcher marks the site of a temple to Venus, which the emperor Constantine removed, understanding that it stood over the sacred site. The tradition thus goes back at least to the 4th century. But in view of the operations and activities of Titus in the 1st century and Hadrian in the 2nd, the identification must still be viewed as precarious. It has at least been clarified by recent excavations that the traditional site lay outside the city walls in the time of Christ. On the other hand, the evidence of the church itself may indicate a tomb of slightly too late a date to be authentic.

The Garden Tomb was first pointed out in 1849; a rock formation there resembles a skull; and admittedly the site accords with the biblical data. But there is no tradition or anything else to support its claim. The more ancient site is much more likely; but any identification must remain conjectural.¹

¹D. F. Payne, Calvary, New Bible Dictionary, ed. D. R. W. Wood, I. H. Marshall, A. R. Millard, J. I. Packer and D. J. Wiseman, 3rd ed. (Leicester, England; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1996). 160.

CAPERNAUM — City of Galilee, mentioned only in the Gospels, which was the headquarters of much of Jesus’ ministry. It lay on the northwest side of the Sea of Galilee (or Lake of Gennesaret), but its site is unknown. Its name means village of Nahum. But it is impossible to say who this Nahum was, whether the Old Testament writer or someone else. Matthew gives us the only location we know: And leaving Nazareth he went and dwelt in Capernaum by the sea, in the territory of Zebulun and Naphtali (Matthew 4:13). The west shore of the lake was settled by the tribe of Naphtali. Two of the characters described as being in Capernaum help to identify its location as near the border of the Jordan and the political frontier. The story of the centurion (Matthew 8:5; Luke 7:2) points to the small garrison of about 100 men found at such a frontier town. The story of Levi’s call to leave the customs post controlling the taxation of the area reflects on the same border character of the town (Matthew 9:9; Mark 2:14; Luke 5:27).

These are the only scant indications we have, for the supposed sites of Capernaum have not been excavated adequately to determine which it is. The two possible sites are within two miles of each other: Khan Minya (or Khirbet el-Minyeh) and Tell Hum (or Telhūm). Until the end of the last century Khirbet el-Minyeh was favored, lying at the seventh milestone on the road from Tiberias to Safed. Stones for building the road were used from this site. E. Robinson identified Khirbet el-Minyeh as Capernaum, but does not indicate why he favored the site. Josephus (War 3.10.8) describes in glowing terms the fertility of the countryside of Gennesaret and describes a very copious spring called Capernaum. This could well be the springs of the Seven Wells in the Tabgha delta, one of which is the most abundant spring in Galilee. Its water served to drive mills and to irrigate the Tabgha plain. It also fed two cisterns which in turn supplied a Roman bath northeast of Khirbet el-Minyeh.

Most of what we know of Capernaum is from the Gospel narrative. It was an important settlement, with a Roman garrison, adopted by Jesus as his own city after his rejection by Nazareth (Matthew 9:1). Here he was at home (Mark 2:1) and performed many miracles (Mark 1:34): the healing of the centurion’s servant (Matthew 8:5); the healing of Peter’s mother-in-law (Mark 1:31); and the exorcism of the unclean spirit (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33). Thus highly favored by the ministry of Jesus, there was also a heavy curse imposed on the city because of its unrepentance: And you Capernaum, will you be exalted to heaven? You shall be brought down to Hades (Matthew 11:23; Luke10:15).¹

War Josephus, The Jewish War

¹ Elwell, Walter A., and Barry J. Beitzel. Baker encyclopedia of the Bible 1988 : 415. Print.

ELIJAH — Personal name meaning my God is Yah. The prophet from the ninth century B.C. from Tishbe of Gilead in the Northern Kingdom has been called the grandest and the most romantic character that Israel ever produced (1 Kings 17:1–2 Kings 2:18). He was a complex man of the desert who counseled kings.

In his role as God’s prophet, Elijah told Ahab, Israel’s king, that there would be no rain or dew apart from his approval (1 Kings 17:1). Immediately after the prophecy, he retreated to the brook Cherith where he was fed by ravens. His next refuge was Zarephath where he performed the miracle of raising the widow’s dead son (1 Kings 17:17–24). Here he was first called a man of God.

Later, on Mount Carmel Elijah confronted 450 prophets of Baal and 400 prophets of Asherah(1 Kings 18:19–40). The contest was to determine the true God. The false prophets called on their gods, and Elijah called on His God to see which would rain fire from heaven. After the false prophets failed to hear from their gods, Elijah wet the wood on his altar to the true God by pouring four jars of water over it three times. In response of Elijah’s prayer, Yahweh rained fire from heaven to consume the wet wood. As a result of their deception, Elijah ordered the false prophets killed.

Then, from Carmel, Elijah prayed. He sent his servant seven times to see if rain was coming. The seventh time a cloud the size of a hand appeared on the horizon. Ahab was told to flee before the storm. In a God-given burst of speed, Elijah outran his chariot and the storm that arrived at Jezreel.

Jezebel, Ahab’s wife, planned to kill Elijah for slaughtering the false prophets, so Elijah retreated to Judah and finally Mount Horeb. There he observed the power of the wind, earthquake, and fire; but the Lord was not seen in these forces. In a small voice the Lord commanded him to go anoint Hazael king of Syria, Jehu king of Israel, and Elisha as his own successor (1 Kings 19:1–17).

Relationship to Messiah:

Malachi promised God would send Elijah the prophet before the coming day of the LORD (Mal. 4:5). John the Baptist was spoken of as the one who would go before Messiah in the spirit and power of Elijah (Luke 1:17 HCSB). Jesus said that there was no one greater than John the Baptist, and that he was the fulfillment of Malachi’s prophecy (Matthew 11:7-13). John the Baptist was, in a sense, this prophesied Elijah (Matthew 11:14). John personally denied that he was literally Elijah reincarnate (John 1:21, 25). Some considered Jesus to be Elijah (Matthew 16:14; Mark 6:15).

Elijah appeared along with Moses on the Mount of Transfiguration with Jesus to discuss His departure (Matthew 17:4; Mark 9:5; Luke 9:33).

The two witnesses referred to in Revelation 11:6 are not identified by name, but their capacity to close the sky so that it does not rain (HCSB) leads many to conclude they are Moses and Elijah.¹

¹ Nelson Price, Elijah, ed. Chad Brand et al., Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary (Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers, 2003), 478–480.

GALILEE — a Roman province of Palestine during the time of Jesus. Measuring roughly 80 kilometers (50 miles) north to south and about 58 kilometers (30 miles) east to west, Galilee was the most northerly of the three provinces of Palestine—Galilee, Samaria, and Judea. Covering more than a third of Palestine’s territory, Galilee extended from the base of Mount Hermon in the north to the Carmel and Gilboa ranges in the south. The Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River valley were its western and eastern borders, respectively.

Originally a district in the hill country of Naphtali (2 Kings 15:29; 1 Chronicles 6:76), Galilee was inhabited by a mixed race of Jews and heathen. The Canaanites continued to dominate Galilee for many years after Joshua’s invasion (Judges 1:30–33; 4:2). It was historically known among the Jews as Galilee of the Gentiles (Isaiah 9:1; Matthew 4:15).

Galilee had such a mixed population that Solomon could award unashamedly to Hiram, king of Tyre, 20 of its cities in payment for timber from Lebanon (1 Kings 9:11). After conquest by Tiglath–Pileser, king of Assyria (about 732 B.C.), Galilee was repopulated by a colony of heathen immigrants (2 Kings 15:29; 17:24). Thus the Galilean accent and dialect were very distinct (Matthew 26:69, 73). For this and other reasons, the pure-blooded Jews of Judea, who were more orthodox in tradition, despised the Galileans (John 7:52). Rather contemptuously Nathanael asked, Can anything good come out of Nazareth? (John 1:46).

Galilee consisted essentially of an upland area of forests and farmlands. An imaginary line from the plain of Acco (Acre) to the north end of the Sea of Galilee divided the country into Upper and Lower Galilee. Since this area was actually the foothills of the Lebanon mountains, Upper and Lower Galilee had two different elevations.

The higher of the elevations, Upper Galilee, was more than 1,000 meters (3,000 feet) above sea level; and in the days of the New Testament it was densely forested and thinly inhabited. The lower elevation, Lower Galilee, averaged between 500 to 700 meters (1,500 to 2,000 feet) above sea level; it was less hilly and enjoyed a milder climate than Upper Galilee. This area included the rich plain of Esdraelon and was a pleasant land (Genesis 49:15). Chief exports of the region were olive oil, grains, and fish.

Galilee was the boyhood home of Jesus Christ. He was a lad of Nazareth, as it was prophesied: He shall be called a Nazarene (Matthew 2:23). Here He attempted to begin His public ministry, but was rejected by His own people (Luke 4:16–30).

All the disciples of Jesus, with the exception of Judas Iscariot, came from Galilee (Matthew 4:18; John 1:43–44; Acts 1:11; 2:7). In Cana of Galilee He performed His first miracle (John 2:11); in fact, most of His 33 great miracles were performed in Galilee. Capernaum in Galilee became the headquarters of His ministry (Matthew 4:13; 9:1). Of His 32 parables, 19 were spoken in Galilee. The first three gospels concern themselves largely with Christ’s Galilean ministry. Most of the events of our Lord’s life and ministry are set against the backdrop of the Galilean hills.

When Herod the Great died in 4 B.C., Galilee fell to the authority of Antipas; Herod, who governed until A.D. 39. He built his capital city at Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee and was succeeded by HEROD I who took the title of king. After Agrippa’s death in A.D. 44 (Acts 12:23), Galilee became a ZEALOT stronghold until the Romans crushed Jewish resistance in Palestine between A.D. 66 and 73.¹

¹ Nelson’s New Illustrated Bible Dictionary, ed. Ronald F. Youngblood, F. F. Bruce, R. K. Harrison and Thomas Nelson Publishers (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, Inc., 1995).

JAMES — James the Great was an apostle, the son of Zebedee and Salome and brother of John the Evangelist. Jesus called the two brothers Boanerges (Greek, sons of thunder) because of their zeal (Mark 3:17). With Peter and John, James was one of the three privileged disciples who witnessed the transfiguration of Jesus (Matthew 17:1) and his agony in the garden of Gethsemane (Matthew 26:37). James was the first of the 12 apostles to be martyred (Acts 12:1-2); it is probable that he was condemned by the Sanhedrin on a charge of sedition, with the connivance of Herod Agrippa I, King of Judea. He is especially venerated in Spain because of an unsubstantiated tradition that he preached there shortly before his death. A 9th-century martyrology, or history of the martyrs, records that his mortal remains were transported to the city of Santiago de Compostela. During the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century), the shrine of Saint James became the destination of pilgrimages from all parts of western Europe, rivaling Rome and Jerusalem in popularity. His feast day is July 25.¹

¹ James (saints), Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 2000.© 1993-1999 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

JOHN THE APOSTLE — John, the beloved apostle, was one of the twelve men Jesus chose to be His apostles. Historically, the church has accepted John as the author of the Fourth Gospel, the Book of Revelation, and three of the general letters that bear his name. He was the son of Zebedee (Matthew 4:21), and, together with his brother James, grew up in the village of Capernaum on the northern shore of the see of Galilee.

John and his brother, James, along with Peter were included in the inner circle of Jesus’ apostles. These three men witnessed events that the rest of the apostles did not see. They were present at the raising of Jairus’ daughter (Mark 5:37), the transfiguration (Matthew 17:1), and in the garden (Matthew 26:37). Although his letters and gospel are steeped in the love of God and his redeemed brethren, the Lord named him and his brother Boanerges, which means ‘sons of thunder’(Mark 3:17). This would fit the impetuous character that we see in Mark 9:38 and Luke 9:54 where John wants to call down fire from heaven to punish someone who was healing in the Name of Jesus, but was not one of Jesus’ close disciples. In any case, they were also generous, willing to drink with Christ the cup of suffering (Matthew 20:22). In Acts John is several times mentioned with Peter (3:1 and 11), with whom he is imprisoned and appears before the Sanhedrin (4:1–21). Later he is sent to Samaria with Peter, to invoke the Holy Spirit on the new converts (8:14-17). He was present also with the Apostles’ council in Jerusalem (Galatians 2:9).

According to later tradition, John eventually left Jerusalem and went to Asia Minor. There he settled at Ephesus. Under Domitian he was exiled to Patmos, where he wrote the Book of Revelation (Revelation 1:9). He was released from exile when Nerva became emperor and returned to Ephesus where he wrote the Gospel and Epistles in his old age. It is believed he died there near the age of 100, the only apostle who did not suffer a martyr’s death.¹

¹ F. L. Cross and Elizabeth A. Livingstone, The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, 3rd ed. rev. (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 885-86.

LAW — an orderly system of rules and regulations by which a society is governed. In the Bible, particularly the Old Testament, a unique law code was established by direct revelation from God to direct His people in their worship, in their relationship to Him, and in their social relationships with one another.

Israel was not the only nation to have a law code. Such collections were common among the countries of the ancient world. These law codes generally began with an explanation that the gods gave the king the power to reign, along with a pronouncement about how good and capable he was. Then came the king’s laws grouped by subject. The code generally closed with a series of curses and blessings.

The biblical law code, or the Mosaic Law, was different from other ancient Near Eastern law codes in several ways. Biblical law was different, first of all, in its origin. Throughout the ancient world, the laws of most nations were believed to originate with the gods, but they were considered intensely personal and subjective in the way they were applied. Even the gods were under the law, and they could suffer punishment if they violated it—unless, of course, they were powerful and able to conquer the punishers. The king ruled under the god whose temple and property he oversaw. Although he did not live under a written law code, he had a personal relationship to the god. Therefore, law was decided case by case and at the king’s discretion. For most of a king’s lifetime, his laws were kept secret.

By contrast, the biblical concept was that law comes from God, issues from His nature, and is holy, righteous, and good. Furthermore, at the outset of God’s ruling over Israel at Sinai, God the great King gave His laws. These laws were binding on His people, and He upheld them. Furthermore, His laws were universal. Ancient oriental kings often tried to outdo their predecessors in image, economic power, and political influence. This was often their motivation in setting forth law codes. God, however, depicts His law as an expression of His love for His people (Exodus 19:5–6).¹

¹ Nelson’s New Illustrated Bible Dictionary, ed. Ronald F. Youngblood, F. F. Bruce, R. K. Harrison and Thomas Nelson Publishers (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, Inc., 1995).

LOT — The son of Haran and nephew of Abraham (Genesis 11:27, 31).

Lot was born in Ur and taken to Haran by his grandfather Terah(v. 31) and then to Canaan by Abraham (Abram) (12:4–5). In Canaan Abraham and Lot were the chiefs of two allied pastoral clans. When the two groups became too large to live and travel together, Abraham proposed a separation and magnanimously gave to Lot the choice of direction (13:5–9). Lot took his flocks into the Jordan valley, apparently into part of the Arabah subsequently covered by the southern portion of the Dead Sea. The narrative makes an intentional contrast: Lot chose the green, well-watered valley, eventually making his way as far as the proverbially evil Sodom, the fate of which was well known (vv. 10–13; cf. Deuteronomy 29:23 [MASORETIC TEXT 22]; 32:32; Isaiah 1:9–10; 3:9), while Abraham moved into the highlands that were to be the land of promise (Genesis 13:14–17).

Lot was taken captive by the coalition headed by Chedorlaomer against cities in the Dead Sea-Arabah region, but was freed by Abraham (14:1–16). Later, Lot was spared by God from the destruction of Sodom (19:16; cf. v. 29); he and his two daughters fled to Zoar, but his wife looked back and was turned into a pillar of salt.

Lot went with his daughters to live in a cave in the hills above Zoar, apparently afraid to return to town life because of what had happened to Sodom and Gomorrah (v. 30). Being thus cut off from human society, his daughters feared the extinction of their family, and so arranged between themselves to have offspring by their father (vv. 31–36). The two sons thus produced were the eponymous ancestors of two Transjordanian peoples, the Moabites (v. 37; cf. Deuteronomy 2:9) and Ammonites (19:38; cf. Deuteronomy 2:19), future enemies of Israel (cf. Psalms 83:6–8 [MASORETIC TEXT 7–9]).

In later literature Lot is most remembered for the flight from Sodom and the attendant events. The destruction in the days of Lot was proverbial for judgment that is sudden and complete (Luke 17:28–30). Lot’s neighbors became examples of sinners not spared (Sirach 16:8; cf. Wisdom 10:7–8), Lot’s wife of indecision (Luke 17:31–32) and unbelief (Wisdom 10:7), and Lot himself of a righteous person delivered through judgment (2 Peter 2:7; Wisdom 10:6).¹

¹ Myers, Allen C. The Eerdmans Bible dictionary 1987 : 664. Print.

MARK (JOHN) — Author of the Second Gospel and an early missionary leader. John Mark, as Luke calls him in Acts, was the son of Mary, in whose house the church was meeting when Peter was miraculously freed from prison in Acts 12. Commonly called by his Greek name, Mark, in the NT, John was probably his Jewish name. Mark was a Jew, Barnabas’ cousin (Colossians 4:10), and a companion of Barnabas and Paul on their first missionary journey. On the first missionary journey Mark ministered with the group on Cyprus, the home territory of Barnabas, and also a place with family connections for Mark. However, when they left for Pamphylia, Mark returned to Jerusalem.

Mark was the cause of the split between Paul and Barnabas when Mark’s participation in the second missionary journey was debated (Acts 15:39). Barnabas sided with his cousin, while Paul refused to take Mark since he had left them on the first journey. Later, however, Paul indicated that Mark was with him (in Rome likely) as Paul sent letters to the Colossians (Col. 4:10) and Philemon (Philem. 24). Mark was also summoned to be with Paul in 2 Tim. 4:11. Whatever rift existed earlier was healed sometime and their friendship renewed.

Mark is closely related to Peter. In 1 Pet. 5:13 Peter refers to Mark, his son, as being with him in Rome (Babylon). Early church tradition supports the strong association between Peter and Mark. In the early second century, Papias mentioned that Mark was Peter’s interpreter. Other early church figures associate Mark with Peter and note that the Gospel of Mark was based upon Peter’s preaching.¹

¹ Warren, Bill. Mark, John. Ed. Chad Brand et al. Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary 2003 : 1082. Print.

MESOPOTAMIA — Strictly speaking, Mesopotamia (from the Greek between the rivers) is the designation of the area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Mesopotamia applies more generally to the entire Tigris-Euphrates valley. At times in antiquity the culture of Mesopotamia dominated an even larger area, spreading east into Elam and Media, north into Asia Minor, and following the Fertile Crescent into Canaan and Egypt.

The Scriptures witness to a long history of contacts between the Hebrew people and the people of Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia was the homeland of the patriarchs (Genesis 11:31–12:4; 24:10; 28:6). A Mesopotamian king subdued Israel for a time during the period of the judges (Judges 3:8). Mesopotamia supplied mercenary chariots and cavalry for the Ammonites’ war with David (1 Chronicles 19:6; superscription of Psalm 60). Both the Northern Kingdom of Israel (2 Kings 15:29; 1 Chronicles 5:26) and the Southern Kingdom of Judah (2 Kings 24:14–16; 2 Chronicles 36:20; Ezra 2:1) went into exile in Mesopotamia.¹

In the NT Mesopotamia is mentioned only twice. People from Mesopotamia were present on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:9). Stephen, in his defense before the Sanhedrin, states that Abraham lived in Mesopotamia, before he lived in Haran (Acts 7:2; see Genesis 11:31).²

¹ Brand, Chad et al., eds. Mesopotamia. Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary 2003 : 1110–1111. Print. NT New Testament

² Elwell, Walter A., and Barry J. Beitzel. Baker encyclopedia of the Bible 1988 : 1445. Print.

MOSES — the Hebrew prophet who delivered the Israelites from Egyptian slavery and who was their leader and lawgiver during their years of wandering in the wilderness. He was from the family line of Amram and Jochebed(Exodus 6:18, 20; Numbers 26:58–59), Kohath and Levi. He was also the brother of Aaron and Miriam.

Moses was a leader so inspired by God that he was able to build a united nation from a race of oppressed and weary slaves. In the covenant ceremony at Mount Sinai, where the TEN COMMANDMENTS were given, he founded the religious community known as Israel. As the interpreter of these covenant laws, he was the organizer of the community’s religious and civil traditions. His story is told in the Old Testament—in the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.

Moses’ life is divided into three major periods:

The Forty Years in Egypt. The Hebrew people had been in slavery in Egypt for some 400 years. Moses was born at a time when the pharaoh, the ruler of Egypt, had given orders that no more male Hebrew children should be allowed to live. By God’s providence, Moses—the child of a Hebrew slave—was found and adopted by an Egyptian princess, the daughter of the pharaoh himself. He was reared in the royal court as a prince of the Egyptians: And Moses was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and was mighty in words and deeds (Acts 7:22). At the same time, the Lord determined that Moses should be taught in his earliest years by his own mother. This meant that he was schooled in the faith of his fathers, although he was reared as an Egyptian (Exodus 2:1–10).

When Moses killed an Egyptian, he feared for his life and fled from Egypt to the land of Midian. Moses was 40 years old when this occurred (Acts 7:23–29).

The Forty Years in the Land of Midian. Moses’ exile of about 40 years was spent in the land of Midian (mostly in northwest Arabia), in the desert between Egypt and Canaan. In Midian Moses became a shepherd and eventually the son-in-law of Jethro, a Midianite priest. Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage (Exodus 2:21); and she bore him two sons, Gershom and Eliezer (Exodus 18:3–4; Acts 7:29).

Near the end of his 40-year sojourn in the land of Midian, Moses experienced a dramatic call to ministry. This call was given at the BURNING BUSH in the wilderness near Mount Sinai. The Lord revealed His intention to deliver Israel from Egyptian captivity into a land flowing with milk and honey that He had promised centuries before to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. The Lord assured Moses that He would be with him, and that by God’s presence, he would be able to lead the people out.

The Forty Years in the Wilderness. After a series of plagues, Pharaoh finally let the slaves go, and Moses led the people toward Mount Sinai, in obedience to the word of God spoken to him at the burning bush (Exodus 3:1–12).

When the Israelites arrived at Mount Sinai, Moses went up onto the mountain for 40 days (Exodus 24:18). The Lord appeared in a terrific storm—thunderings and lightnings, and a thick cloud (Exodus 19:16). Out of this momentous encounter came the covenant between the Lord and Israel, including the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20:1–17).

After leaving Mount Sinai, the Israelites continued their journey toward the land of Canaan. They arrived at KADESHBARNEA, on the border of the Promised Land.

When Moses had led the Israelites to the borders of Canaan, his work was done. In the Song of Moses (Deuteronomy 32:1–43), Moses renewed the Sinai Covenant with the survivors of the wanderings, praised God, and blessed the people, tribe by tribe (Deuteronomy 33:1-29). Then he climbed Mount Nebo to the top of Pisgah and viewed the Promised Land from afar and died. The Hebrews never saw him again, and the circumstances of his death and burial remain shrouded in mystery.

NERO — Emperor of Rome A.D.54-69; successor to Claudius.

The transition of power from Claudius to Nero went smoothly, under the direction of the Praetorian Guard. The early years of Nero’s reign were remarkably stable and free of the excesses characteristic of his later years. Tutored by the Stoic philosopher Seneca and ably assisted by the Praetorian prefect Burrus, the young Nero gained favor with both the Senate and Rome, despite the meddling of his dominating mother, Agrippina. Nero’s Hellenism, demonstrated