1st Corinthians Correcting the Church

By Practical Christianity Foundation

Correcting the Church In his first epistle to the Corinthian Church the apostle Paul confronted the immorality, doctrinal confusion and frequent disputes that had become commonplace among the Corinthian believers. Paul's message to this church was simple yet powerful: Consider the values of Christ's redemption and realign your thinking with God's instructions.
Although this letter was written to correct, admonish, instruct, and encourage the early church, they are just as relevant to us today.
This verse-by-verse devotional study, complete with engaging commentary and practical life applications, will challenge you to pursue a closer walk with Jesus Christ and grow in the faith.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Practical Christianity Foundation
• Release date: Aug 21, 2020
• ISBN: 9781600980824

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PREFACE

From the conception of Practical Christianity Foundation (PCF), it has been the goal of the organization to convey the truth in Scripture through verse-by-verse devotional studies such as this one. As part of that goal, we neither prove nor disprove any traditional or alternative interpretations, beliefs, or doctrines but rather look to the Holy Spirit to reveal the truth contained by the Scriptures. Any interpretations relating to ambiguous passages that are not directly and specifically verifiable by other scriptural references are simply presented in what we believe to be the most likely intention of the message based on those things that we are specifically told. In those instances, our conclusions are noted as interpretive, and such analyses should not be understood as doctrinal positions that we are attempting to champion.

This study is divided into sections, usually between six and eight verses, and each section concludes with a Notes/Applications passage, which draws practical insight from the related verses that can be applied to contemporary Christian living. The intent is that the reader will complete one section per day, will gain a greater understanding of the verses within that passage, and will daily be challenged toward a deeper commitment to our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. Our prayer is that this study will impact the lives of all believers, regardless of age, ethnicity, or education.

Each of PCF’s original projects is a collaborative effort of many writers, content editors, grammatical editors, transcribers, researchers, readers, and other contributors, and as such, we present them only as products of Practical Christianity Foundation as a whole. These works are not for the recognition or acclamation of any particular individual but are written simply as a means to uphold and fulfill the greater purpose of our Mission Statement, which is to exalt the holy name of God Almighty by declaring the redemptive message of His Son, the Lord Jesus Christ, to the lost global community and equipping the greater Christian community through the communication of the holy Word of God in its entirety through every appropriate means available.

Practical Christianity Foundation Value Statements

1.We value the holy name of God the Father and will strive to exalt Him through godly living, committed service, and effective communication. As long as you live, you, your children, and your grandchildren must fear the Lord your God. All of you must obey all his laws and commands that I’m giving you, and you will live a long time (Deuteronomy 6:2).

2.We value the redemptive work of the Lord Jesus Christ, God’s holy Son, for a lost world and will strive to communicate His redemptive message to the global community. Then Jesus said to them, ‘So wherever you go in the world, tell everyone the Good News’ (Mark 16:15).

3.We value the Holy Spirit through whose regenerating work sinners are redeemed and the redeemed are convinced of the truth of God’s Holy Word. He will come to convict the world of sin, to show the world what has God’s approval, and to convince the world that God judges it (John 16:8).

4.We value the Holy Word of God and will strive to communicate it in its entirety. "¹⁶Every Scripture passage is inspired by God. All of them are useful for teaching, pointing out errors, correcting people, and training them for a life that has God’s approval. ¹⁷They equip God’s servants so that they are completely prepared to do good things" (2 Timothy 3:16–17).

5.We value spiritual growth in God’s people through the equipping ministry of the Church of the Lord Jesus Christ and will strive to provide resources for that ministry by the communication of God’s Holy Word, encouraging them to be lovers of the truth. But grow in the good will and knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. Glory belongs to him now and for that eternal day! Amen (2 Peter 3:18).

INTRODUCTION

Most scholars infer from several texts in Acts and 1 Corinthians that Paul(view image) wrote several letters to the Corinthians including the two epistles in the New Testament while he was in Ephesus(view image) teaching at the school of Tyrannus (1 Corinthians 5:9; Acts 19:9),¹ Paul’s first recorded letter to the Corinthians is one of the two remaining epistles that Paul wrote to the Christians in Corinth. This letter was probably among the first few epistles that Paul sent to the churches he established during his first two missionary journeys. Biblical scholars speculate that the Corinthian epistles were written sometime between A.D. 53 and A.D. 59 after Claudius exiled the Jews from Rome(view image).

Corinth(view image) was a prosperous ancient Greek city. It was built on a plateau with a majestic setting overlooking the waters of the Mediterranean, the Ionian, and the Aegean seas. Due to its strategic location between the ports of Lecaeum on the west and Cenchreae(view image) on the east, and its position between the southern and northern regions of Greece proper, Corinth became a bustling crossroads for land and sea trade. The population of Corinth was very cosmopolitan, made up of Greeks, Roman officials and businessmen, and Near Eastern peoples, including many Jews.² With the Acrocorinth(view image) as its citadel bearing the temple of the goddess of love, Aphrodite, on its summit and the patron of seafarers, Poseidon, at its base, Corinth became a safe haven for people of all vocations including prostitutes who financed the temples through their services.

Before its destruction by the Romans in 146 B.C., Corinth was the center of Greek patriotism where Phillip II and his son Alexander the Great(view image) formed a Hellenic league to fight first the Persians and later the Romans.³ It was rebuilt by Julius Caesar about 46 B.C. as the capital of the Roman province of Achaia that included almost all of Greece. As in most Roman cities, marble temples dominated the landscape.⁴ It was a city that derived its glamorous identity from the sentiments of Greek pride and Roman glory.

The newer, thriving metropolis, the Achaian Corinth, had a much more diverse populace than the older Greek city by the same name. Retired Roman soldiers who earned Roman citizenship through their military service settled the city. It was also inhabited by recently exiled Jews, traders, and seafarers of numerous nationalities, peddlers and vendors, agents of all interests, Roman entrepreneurs, and Greek philosophers. The merchants were motivated by unmitigated adventure and unquenched greed. It was this melting pot of humanity that greeted Paul as he arrived from Athens with the message of the Gospel for both the Jews and the Gentiles.

Paul went to Corinth for the first time during his second missionary journey as he revisited the cities where he preached the Gospel during his previous tour (Acts 15:36; 18:1). Fervently declaring the Gospel of the death and the resurrection of the Lord Jesus Christ in the cities of Amphipolis, Apollonia, Thessalonica(view image), Berea, and Athens, Paul arrived at Corinth. He barely escaped angry mobs in many of these cities but found kindred spirits in Aquila and Priscilla in both craft and in ministry. Aquila and Priscilla were a Jewish couple that left Rome(view image) due to the Claudian decree in a.d. 49 that exiled all Jews from the Roman capital. They arrived in Corinth ahead of Paul. As fellow tentmakers and servants of the Lord, Paul identified easily with Aquila and Priscilla and lived with them for some time working and spreading the Gospel together in Corinth as well as in other cities (18:2–3; 18–19).⁵

Immediately upon arriving at Corinth(view image), Paul began to confront the Jews in their synagogues regarding the Scriptures. The fervency of his ministry was greatly enhanced by the arrival of Silas and Timothy whom Paul left in Berea as he escaped the hot pursuit of the Thessalonian mob that wanted to kill him. With the help of Christian friends, he was given safe passage to Athens (Acts 17:13–15; 18:5). Paul was greatly encouraged by the vision he received from God concerning his own safety and the Lord’s assurance of the harvest of souls in Corinth (18:9–10). Consequently, he stayed in Corinth before continuing on his missionary journey and preached the Gospel to the Gentiles for more than eighteen months in spite of the heated opposition from the Jews with whom he debated in the synagogues every Sabbath (vv. 5–7, 11, 18). The Corinthian church was born during this time of fruitful ministry.

After eighteen months of hard work in Corinth, Paul continued on his missionary journey. He left Corinth to return to the cities where he had preached earlier, strengthening the believers and establishing the churches on a solid doctrinal foundation. He went to Syria and stopped briefly at Ephesus(view image) after which he traveled through Caesarea, Jerusalem(view image), Antioch(view image), Galatia, Phrygia, and several cities of the upper coast of the region. He finally returned to Ephesus for an extended period of teaching and miracles (Acts 18:18–23; 19:1, 8–12).

Armed with the endorsement of Jesus’ chosen apostles, Paul and Barnabas returned to Antioch. There, in A.D. 49, Paul penned this letter to the Galatian Christians, a letter that displayed the apostle’s certainty of the Gospel he had delivered to them as well as the intensity of his frustration with their defection to the errors of the Judaizers’ doctrine.

It was during this time of incredible ministry that Paul(view image) received disturbing news from Corinth regarding the state of the church (1 Corinthians 1:11; 7:1; 16:17). Paul was informed that the church was deeply divided. There was an unwholesome tolerance of gross immorality. There was also profound doctrinal confusion concerning the issues of marriage and virginity, the Lord’s Supper, and the resurrection of the dead. There were ongoing disputes that were never settled. They did not understand the eating of food sacrificed to idols, spiritual gifts, and collections for the saints. Consequently, Paul sent this corrective epistle intending to instruct the church in Corinth as well as the Church universal in the true admonitions of the Word of God (1:2).

However, despite all of the problems—immorality, factional disputes, and theological misunderstandings—the fact that there was a church of redeemed believers in this unholy city stands as a testimony to the power of God and the life-changing work of the Spirit as Paul preached the Gospel with integrity, intensity, and holy passion.

PAUL THE APOSTLE — Outstanding missionary, theologian, and writer of the early church. Paul is a very important figure in the NT and in the history of Christianity. He wrote 13 epistles that comprise almost one-fourth of the NT. Approximately 16 chapters of the book of Acts (13–28) focus on his missionary labors. Thus Paul is the author or subject of nearly one-third of the NT and the most important interpreter of the teachings of Christ and of the significance of His life, death, and resurrection.

Paul was bom in a Jewish family in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 22:3), probably sometime during the first decade of the first century. Paul’s family was of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil. 3:5), and he

Painting of St. Paul

Church in Philippi

was named for the most prominent member of the tribe—King Saul. Paul probably came from a family of tentmakers or leatherworkers and, according to Jewish custom, was taught this trade by his father. Apparently the business thrived and Paul’s family became moderately wealthy.

Paul was bom a Roman citizen. The book of Acts states three times that he possessed it, and his citizenship was accompanied by important rights that would benefit him in his missionary labors. The Roman citizen had the right of appeal after a trial, exemption from imperial service, right to choose between a local or Roman trial, and protection from degrading forms of punishment like scourging.

Paul was educated in Jerusalem in the Jewish religion according to the traditions of his ancestors (Acts 22:3). Acts 22 says that Paul was trained by Rabbi Gamaliel I, the member of the Sanhedrin mentioned in Acts 5:33–39. Gamaliel was a leading Jewish teacher in Paul’s day. Paul quickly excelled as a Jewish rabbinical student. As Paul says in Gal. 1:14, I advanced in Judaism beyond many contemporaries among my people, because I was extremely zealous for the traditions of my ancestors.

Paul, more than his mentor Gamaliel (Acts 5:34–39), recognized the serious threat that the followers of Jesus posed to the traditional Jewish religion. Paul was probably in his thirties when he, with authorization from the chief priest, began to imprison believers first in the synagogues of Jerusalem and then later in Damascus.

While Saul was on his way to Damascus to arrest and imprison believers there, the resurrected and glorified Christ appeared to him with blinding radiance. At the appearance of Christ, Saul immediately surrendered to His authority and went into the city to await further orders. There his blindness was healed and he received the Holy Spirit and accepted believer's baptism. Ananias told Paul the message that the Lord had given him in a vision: This man is My chosen instrument to carry My name before Gentiles, kings, and the sons of Israel. I will certainly show him how much he must suffer for My name!

The res of Paul’s life was consumed by his commitment to the call that the Lord laid upon him. He made three major missionary journeys throughout the eastern region of the Roman Empire, staying eighteen months in Corinth and nearly three years in emphasis. At the end of his third journey, he carried an offering from the churches in Europe and Asia minor to relieve the suffering of the saints in Jerusalem.

While in the temple performing a ritual to demonstrate his Jewish faithfulness to some of the Jerusalem believers, Jewish opponents incited a riot, and Paul was arrested (A.D. 57). Paul was

EPHESUS — Ephesus, capital of the wealthy province of Asia. This city was home to Paul for more than two years. This proud city, whose heritage reached back a thousand years to the Ionian Greeks, boasted of her fame as the Warden of the great temple of Artemis, an ancient fertility/mother goddess worshiped by the Romans as Diana. One of the seven wonders of the ancient world, the Artemision was the largest marble temple of the Greek world (about 420 × 240 feet); it replaced an earlier structure burned in 356 B.C. The temple stood northeast of the city on a marshy plain beneath a hill. Ionic capitals crowned over a hundred columns set in double rows around the shrine. Some of the columns were sculpted with mythological scenes and overlaid with gold. A U-shaped altar stood in a forecourt. The Artemision was burned by the Goths in A.D. 263, and the emperor Justinian cannibalized the ruins shortly after A.D. 500 for building materials. Little remains of this once mighty edifice, but in Paul’s day pilgrims from all over Asia Minor and beyond converged on Ephesus annually in the spring to pay homage to the mother goddess with special celebrations. Images of the goddess found in excavations show Artemis wearing an unusual corselet composed of eggs or multiple breasts.

Ephesus’ political importance increased when Domitian awarded the city a provincial imperial temple dedicated to the Flavian Dynasty. As a temple warden (Greek Neokoros) of a provincial imperial temple, Ephesus received political and commercial benefits and increased status among the cities of Asia. Prominent Ephesians served the Provincial Assembly (Koinon) whose mission was to cultivate and enforce emperor worship within the province. Several scholars identify this assembly with the second beast in Revelation 13 who made war on the Christians of Asia by requiring worship of the emperor (Revelation 13:11–18).

Ephesus’ strategic location ensured the city was a large, important commercial center. A well-protected harbor at the mouth of the Cayster River afforded good anchorage despite the continual problem of silting. Links with the Meander and Hermus Valleys afforded access to the agricultural wealth and interior cities of western Asia Minor. Paul evangelized the interior by sending his disciples from Ephesus (for example, Epaphras, (Colossians 1:7), and carried on correspondence from Ephesus with churches (the Corinthian correspondence; perhaps the Prison Epistles—Colossians, Ephesians, Philippians, and Philemon—according to some scholars).

Hellenistic/Roman Ephesus occupied an area south of the Artemision between two prominences, Mounts Pion and Koressos. Lysimachus built the new city about 290 B.C., forcing the inhabitants of the earlier city to move from the earliest site. Ephesus was the fourth or fifth largest city of the empire when Paul visited the city, with a population estimated at 250,000. As the administrative capital of Asia, Ephesus was well endowed with monumental buildings, whose remains are impressive even today. An upper agora contained civic buildings, including an Odeum used as a town council chamber, the Prytaneion used as a town hall, and an imperial temple dedicated to Augustus and Rome.

The large imperial temple built by Domitian stood nearby at the beginning of Curetes Street. Later, Hadrian and Trajan added a fountain and temple along this impressive street known for its fine monuments. Shops lurked behind colonnaded street ways, while fine houses crept up the slopes of the hill. The Library of Celsus, built shortly after 100 A.D., stood at the intersection of Curetes and Marble Streets. Close by, the 360-foot-square commercial agora with its many shops tucked behind a double-aisle stoa served the business needs of the city. A large theater built into Mount Pion seated about twenty-five thousand people and overlooked the harbor. From the theater, the Harbor Road stretched westward toward the busy port facilities. Later, the emperor Arcadius (A.D. 383–408) rebuilt this road into a spacious colonnaded thoroughfare with shops on either side. Several large bath complexes and gymnasia bordered the harbor area near the Harbor Road.

Ephesus’ stature as a center of banking, commerce, provincial government, and religion made it one of the major centers of the Roman world. Little wonder that Paul spent more time in Ephesus than any other city on his missionary journeys. Ephesus provided a strong base of operations to evangelize the province of Asia, a province that fostered a large Christian community by A.D. 100.¹

Images of Ephesus²

¹ Thomas V. Brisco, Holman Bible Atlas, Holman Reference (Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1998). 255.

² Bible Places Pictorial Library of the Bible Lands, Copyright 2012 (Used with permission)

TYRANNUS — Place in Ephesus where Paul taught daily for two years (Acts 19:9). Paul’s ministry in Ephesus began at the synagogue, where he preached for three months. Finding increasing opposition there, Paul withdrew with his converts to the Hall of Tyrannus, where he began a ministry to both Jews and Greeks (Acts 19:10).

In Greek, the term hall literally means leisure or rest. It eventually became associated with the kind of activity carried on during times of leisure, that is, lectures, debates, and discussion. Finally, the term came to mean the place where these leisure activities occurred.

Virtually nothing is known about Tyrannus himself. Some scholars have suggested that he was a Greek rhetorician, possibly a sophist, sympathetic to Paul’s preaching. This suggestion is made plausible by the addition of the Western text that states that Paul taught in the hall from the fifth hour until the tenth, that is, from 11 AM until 4 PM. This would mean that Paul used the hall only during afternoon rest periods; for in all Ionian cities, work ceased at 11 AM and did not resume until late afternoon because of the intense heat. Possibly these rest periods made the hall available for Paul’s use, and Tyrannus himself lectured there before and after these hours. There is no way to determine whether Paul was required to rent the hall or whether Tyrannus, in sympathy to Paul’s work, simply made it available without cost.

If the western text is correct, it points to both the zeal of Paul for his ministry and the desire of his followers to learn. Undoubtedly, Paul and the Ephesian Christians rose early in the morning to engage in manual labor (Acts 20:34; 1 Corinthians 4:12). To follow this with five additional hours of teaching and dialogue (especially during a time when most of the city slept) is a testimony to the enthusiasm of this early Christian community and the priority they gave to the proclamation of the gospel.¹

¹ Walter A. Elwell and Barry J. Beitzel, Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1988), 2110–2111.

CLAUDIUS—Claudius I, Rome’s fourth emperor (A.D. 41–54), the son of Drusus, and the nephew of Tiberius. Proclaimed emperor by the Praetorian Guard in the wake of the murder of Gaius (Caligula), Claudius sought to resolve the political problems of his predecessor, revived Rome’s religious practices, and led a successful expedition to Britain, which resulted in the annexation of a major part of the island to the Roman Empire. Warned by his private secretary Narcissus, he was able to thwart a coup instigated by his third wife. His other secretary, Pallas, prompted Claudius’ subsequent marriage with Agrippina, his own niece, and his adoption of her son Nero; it was Agrippina and Nero who ultimately poisoned Claudius.

Recent scholars have emphasized Claudius’ devotion to, and competence in, governing the empire. He attempted to rectify Gains’ anti-Jewish policy by permitting the Jews, especially those at Alexandria, to live according to their religious customs as early as A.D. 41. This conciliatory move may have been partly due to his early friendship with Herod Agrippa, the grandson of Herod the Great. Yet, his attitude toward the Jews at Rome remained contrary: he not only forbade them to assemble but also expelled all Jews from the city (ca. A.D. 49/50) on account of disturbances. As a result, Aquila and his wife Priscilla were forced to leave Rome and settle at Corinth (Acts 18:2).

According to Acts 11:28 the prophet Agabus predicted that a famine would plague the empire, which Luke assigns to the reign of Claudius. Roman historians in general depict this period as one of worldwide hardship¹

ca.circa

¹ Myers, Allen C. The Eerdmans Bible dictionary 1987 : 221. Print.

ROME, CITY OF — City in Italy founded, according to tradition, in 753 B.C. on seven hills some 15 miles from the mouth of the Tiber River. The seven hills were outcrops of rock, which formed where the Latin plain fell away into the Tiber bed. It was of no biblical interest until New Testament times. There are nine references to the city in the New Testament (Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Romans 1:7, 15; 2 Timothy 1:17), but Paul’s sojourn there and his letter to the Roman Christians, written probably from Corinth between A.D. 57 and 59, make the imperial city of considerable interest to Bible readers.

Christians in Rome.

It was to this magnificent city that Paul came under escort in March A.D. 59. He found a Christian church already established. Indeed, he had already communicated with the Christians in his letter to the Romans early in 55. There was a considerable Jewish colony in Rome in the 1st century A.D., descended from the large number of Jewish slaves brought to the city by Pompey after the capture of Jerusalem in 63. The emperor Claudius expelled Jews from Rome in A.D. 49, possibly when Jesus was proclaimed as Messiah in the synagogue. Who the preachers were is not known, but they were probably Christian travelers and traders. Paul’s Letter to the Romans was his exposition to the gentile churches, which had come into existence independently of him. His first known contact with the people of Rome was when he met Aquila and Priscilla at Corinth (Acts 18:2). This couple was expelled from Rome in the time of Claudius. Later Paul hoped to visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Romans 15:24). In his salutation he mentioned a considerable circle of Christians in Rome (Romans 16). The references to households in several places (Romans 16:5, 10, 11, 14, 15) suggests that these were the basis of the Roman Christian church. During his captivity, Paul was a prisoner of the Roman authorities, but was able to meet the local leaders of the Jews, explain his experiences to them, and expound the Gospel to them in person (Acts 28:16–31).¹

¹ Elwell, Walter A., and Barry J. Beitzel. Baker encyclopedia of the Bible 1988 : 1869–1870. Print.

CORINTH — Prominent city of Greece, formerly the capital of the ancient province of Achaia, in which the apostle Paul preached. The site of ancient Corinth lies to the west of the isthmus separating the Peloponnesian peninsula from mainland Greece. The ancient ruins, largely of Roman origin, are situated about eight/tenths of a mile (1.3km) from present-day Corinth. The area was inhabited from Neolithic times.

Corinth is dominated by an outcrop of rock knowm as Acrocorinth (Upper Corinth). The grandeur of the Greek period is evident in the remains of the temple of Apollo, whose massive columns dominate the site. Entrance to the ancient city is by means of a very broad avenue which lies in a straight line from the city gate. That avenue ends in the marketplace, with roads leading from there to the Acrocorinth. In the apostolic period the city was a bustling commercial and industrial center boasting a population of almost 700,000.¹

¹ Walter A. Elwell and Barry J. Beitzel, Baker encyclopedia of the Bible (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1988) 513–514.

CENCHREAE—Eastern port city of Corinth, located 11km (7 miles) east of the city. Phoebe served in the church there (Romans 16:1), and Paul had his head shaved there when he took a vow (Acts 18:18).¹

¹ Chad Brand et al., eds., Cenchrea, Cenchreae, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary (Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers, 2003), 274.

ACROCORINTH—The acropolis of the ancient city of Corinth, home to a temple of Aphrodite.

The Acrocorinth, or highest Corinth, is a gray limestone, twin-summit peak with a linking saddle. It is located southwest of the ancient city of Corinth, and the Gulf of Corinth and Saronic Gulf can be seen from its walls. The eastern crag, where the temple of Aphrodite (or Venus) stood, rises to a height of 1,886 feet. The acropolis, according to Euripides (cited in Strabo, Geogr. 8.6.21), was well-watered on all sides by the Peirene spring. The two miles of mostly steep walls encircled a trapezium-shaped area of almost 60 acres and joined with the lower city on the north side (Strabo, Geogr. 8.6.21). In Roman times, Plutarch notes, the lowest point in the walls was only 15 feet and the citadel was impregnable, with a garrison of 400 men (Aratus 18.4; 24.1). Only the approach from the west required fortifications and gates for adequate defense.¹

¹Christopher Grant Foster, Acrocorinth, ed. John D. Barry et al., The Lexham Bible Dictionary (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015).

POSEIDON — in Greek religion and mythology, god of the sea, protector of all waters. After the fall of the TITANS, Poseidon was allotted the sea. He was worshiped especially in connection with navigation; but as the god of fresh waters he also was worshiped as a fertility god. In Thessaly and other areas he was important as Hippios, god of horses, and was the father of Pegasus. Poseidon was represented as extremely powerful, with a violent and vengeful disposition. He carried the TRIDENT, with which he could split boulders and cause earthquakes. When LAOMEDON failed to pay him for building the walls of Troy, Poseidon sent a sea monster to ravage the Troad and years later vengefully assisted the Greeks in the Trojan War. His grudge against Odysseus is one of the themes of the Odyssey. He was the husband of Amphitrite, who bore him Triton, and by others he fathered many more sons, who usually turned out to be strong, brutal men (like Orion) or monsters (like Polyphemus). The Romans identified him with Neptune.¹

¹ Paul Lagassé, Columbia University, The Columbia Encyclopedia (New York; Detroit: Columbia University Press; Sold and distributed by Gale Group, 2000).

ALEXANDER THE GREAT — Macedonian conqueror, (356–323 B.C.).

His life has influenced history and culture for more than two millennia, down to the present time. He was a brilliant organizer and military strategist, but his greatest achievement was the Hellenization of the empire he won. This Greek cultural influence was a unifying element among many diverse peoples, although among the Jews it produced cultural and religious conflict.

The introduction of the Greek language throughout this empire also had far-reaching effects. The Old Testament was translated into Greek in Alexandria, Egypt, and the New Testament books were written in that language. The earliest Christian missionaries were bilingual, so that it was possible to bring the gospel to the Jew first, and also to the Greek.

Alexander was the son of an illustrious father, Philip II of Macedon, whose magnificent tomb has only recently come to archaeological light. A seasoned military leader in his teens, Alexander succeeded to the throne at the age of 20 after the assassination of his father. After putting down the rebellions that broke out at his father’s death, Alexander crossed the Dardanelles and conquered Asia Minor.

In 333 B.C. he met and defeated the vaunted Persian army of Darius III at Issus, in a battle which had a lasting historical significance. Moving down the Mediterranean coast, he captured Sidon, Tyre, and Gaza. Reaching Egypt in 332 B.C., he was hailed by the oracle of Amon at Siwa as the divine pharaoh. He founded Alexandria, one of the more than 60 cities he established with this name, and then pushed on to the East. At Arbela (331 B.C.) he again defeated the Persians. When he reached Persia, he seized the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Ecbatana. He forged eastward until he reached the Indus River; here, with his troops worn out and threatening mutiny, he turned back toward the West. He died in Babylon in 323 B.C., a victim of fever, exhaustion, and dissipation, and master of an empire that stretched from the Danube to the Indus and south to the Egyptian Nile.¹

¹ Walter A. Elwell and Barry J. Bcitzel, Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1988). 50–51.

JULIUS CAESAR — (100–44 BC). Roman general, politician, and author. Caesar’s career helped change Rome’s government from republic to empire in the first century before Christ. Julius Caesar’s great-nephew, Augustus, was considered to be the first emperor of Rome and ruled at the time of Jesus’ birth.

Gaius Julius Caesar came from an old, noble Roman family. (Julius is his family name; Caesar identifies the branch of the ancient family he belonged to.) Prior to Gaius, Caesar’s family had only minor involvement in the politics of the republic of Rome. However, in his early 30s, Caesar began to climb Rome’s political latter. He presented himself as a populist and promised to better the lives of Roman citizens. The people elected him to various magistracies. He also served as the governor of Spain.

In 60 BC, Caesar and two other men, GnaeusPompeius Magnus (Pompey) and Marcus Licinius Crassus, formed the First Triumvirate. This was an informal agreement in which these three wealthy and politically connected men agreed to control the various institutions of the Roman government. Each member brought different qualities: Pompey, a successful military commander, brought popularity and influence, Crassus, the richest man in Rome, provided money, and Caesar had ambition and political skill.

Caesar became governor of Cisalpine Gaul, the territory south of the Alps, in 58 BC, and he spent the next nine years conquering the Gallic tribes north of the Alps and incorporating them into the Roman system. Caesar even campaigned briefly on the island of Britain in 55 and 54 BC. He wrote an account of his campaigns, Bellum gallicum. His military successes increased his personal wealth and his political influence. His alliance with Pompey and Crassus, however, dissolved.

In 53 BC, Crassus died fighting Parthians in the east, and Pompey began plotting with Caesar’s enemies in the city of Rome. Caesar wanted to run for consul (chief magistrate of Rome) in absentia for the year 49, but Pompey and Caesar’s enemies required that he disband his army and return to Rome first. Instead of returning to Rome as a private citizen, where he knew his enemies would try him for corruption, Caesar crossed into Italy with his army in 49 BC. Caesar fought civil wars against Pompey and Pompey’s sons for almost five years, but by the close of 45 BC, Caesar had defeated all opposition and had no political or military rivals.

In February of 44 BC, the Roman people voted Caesar into the office of dictator for life, but his rule would be short-lived. A group of senators and other notable men of Rome conspired against Caesar and assassinated him on 15th of March, 44 BC. Octavian, Caesar’s great-nephew and heir, along with other men who wished to avenge Caesar’s memory, began a civil war against the assassins. After more than a decade of fighting, Octavian would find himself in a position similar to that of Caesar; he had no political or military rivals and was the undisputed leader of the Roman people. Octavian became Augustus, the first emperor of Rome, about 30 years before the birth of the Christ.¹

¹ Collin Garbarino, Julius Caesar, ed. John D. Barry et al., The Lexham Bible Dictionary (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015).

ACHAIA—A Roman province that included most of southern and central Greece, with its capital in Corinth.

Paul was in Corinth when Gallio was deputy of Achaia (Acts 18:12). In Acts 20:2, Greece means Achaia, but Macedonia and Achaia usually refer to the whole of Greece (Acts 19:21; Rom 15:26; 1 Thess 1:8). Paul mentions the churches of Achaia because of their generosity (2 Cor 9:13).

Achaeans were the residents of the northern part of the Peloponnesian peninsula in classical Greece, and Homer refers to the Greeks as Achaeans in his epics. Around 280 BC, residents Achaia formed a confederation of smaller city-states called the Achaean League. In 251 BC, Aratus of Sicyon was chosen commander-in-chief. He increased the League’s power and gave it a constitution. In 146 BC, Corinth was destroyed by Rome and the League was broken up. The whole of Greece, under the name of Achaia, was transformed into a Roman province. It was divided into two separate provinces, Macedonia and Achaia, in 27 BC.¹

In the division of provinces in 27 BC, the Roman province of Achaia comprised the lower half of Greece. In the New Testament, Paul visits Achaia when he preaches in its two principal cities, Athens (Acts 17:15–34) and Corinth (Acts 18:27; 1 Corinthians 16:15; 2 Corinthians 1:1). Specific New Testament references to Achaia include Acts 18:12, 27; Romans 15:26; 1 Corinthians 16:15; 2 Corinthians 1:1; 9:2; 11:10; 1 Thess. 1:7–8.²

¹ Major Contributors and Editors, Achaia, ed. John D. Barry et al., The Lexham Bible Dictionary (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015).

² Mark Allan Powell, ed., Achaia, The HarperCollins Bible Dictionary (Revised and Updated) (New York: HarperCollins, 2011), 9.

THESSALONICA — Name of modern Thessaloniki, given to the city about 315 B.C. by Cassander, a general of Alexander the Great. He founded the city in that year, naming it after his wife who was the daughter of Philip II and half sister of Alexander. Located on the Thermaic Gulf (Gulf of Salonika) with an excellent harbor—and at the termination of a major trade route from the Danube—it became, with Corinth, one of the two most important commercial centers in Greece. In the Roman period it retained its Greek cultural orientation and functioned as the capital of Macedonia after 146 B.C. See Macedonia.

When the Apostle Paul visited the city, it was larger than Philippi and reflected a predominantly Roman culture. Thessalonica was a free city, having no Roman garrison within its walls and maintaining the privilege of minting its own coins. Like Corinth, it had a cosmopolitan population due to the commercial prowess of the city. The recent discovery of a marble inscription, written partly in Greek and partly in a Samaritan form of Hebrew and Aramaic, testifies to the presence of Samaritans in Thessalonica. The book of Acts testifies to the presence of a Jewish synagogue there (17:1).

Since most of the ancient city still lies under modern Thessaloniki, it has been impossible to excavate it. However, in the center of town, a large open area has been excavated revealing a Roman forum (marketplace), about 70 by 110 yards (64 by 91m), which dates from about A.D. 100 to 300. An inscription found in the general area, dating to 60 B.C., mentions an agora (Gk. for the Roman forum) and opens the possibility that a Hellenistic marketplace was located here just prior to the construction of this Roman one. In Hellenistic times there was a stadium, a gymnasium, and a temple of Serapis in the city. A third-century odeum (small theater) is preserved on the east side of the forum.

The authenticity of Acts has been questioned due to Luke’s mention of Roman officials in Thessalonica by the name of politarchs (Acts 17:6), who are otherwise unknown in extant Greek literature. However, a Roman arch at the western end of ancient Vardar Street contained an inscription from before A.D. 100 that began, In the time of the Politarchs. Several other inscriptions from Thessalonica, one of them dating from the reign of Augustus Caesar, mention politarchs.¹

Image of Arch of Galerius²

¹ John McRay, Thessalonica, ed. Chad Brand et al., Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary (Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers, 2003) 1590–1591.

² Bible Places Pictorial Library of the Bible Lands, Copyright 2012 (Used with permission)

BEREA—The modern Verria, a city of S Macedonia probably founded in the 5th century BC. In New Testament times it was evidently a prosperous center with a Jewish colony. When Paul and Silas were smuggled out of Thessalonica to avoid Jewish opposition (Acts 17:5–11), they withdrew to Beroea, 80 km away. Here they received a good hearing until the pursuit caught up with them. Beroea was the home of Sopater (Acts 20:4).¹

S South, southern

¹ J. H. Paterson, Beroea, Berea, ed. D. R. W. Wood et al., New Bible dictionary (Leicester, England: InterVarsity Press, 1996) 130.

AQUILA AND PRISCILLA—Married couple who came from Italy to Corinth after the emperor Claudius ordered Jews expelled from Rome, became Christians, and assisted Paul in his ministry. They were tentmakers by trade (2 Tim. 4:19). They came into contact with Paul, who was a tentmaker, in Corinth (Acts 18:2). It is not clear whether they became Christians before or after meeting Paul, but they became workers in the gospel and accompanied Paul to Ephesus (Acts 18:19). There they instructed Apollos in the Christian faith (18:25). A church met in their home, and Paul forwarded their greeting to the Corinthian church (1 Corinthians 16:19).

Aquila and Priscilla were apparently influential among the Gentile churches (Romans 16:3 HCSB). This reference in Romans probably indicates that Priscilla and Aquila moved back to Rome. Some scholars think the church at Ephesus received a copy of the last chapter of Romans. The reference to the couple in 2 Timothy 4:19 may indicate the couple was in Ephesus.

Paul thanked Aquila and Priscilla for risking their own lives for him (Romans 16:4). The circumstances of this incident are unknown, although it may have occurred during Paul’s trouble with Demetrius the silversmith (Acts 19:23–41).¹

¹ Taylor Field, Aquila and Priscilla, ed. Chad Brand et al., Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary (Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers, 2003), 91–92.

SILAS — Apparently, the Greek and Latin forms of the same name, possibly derived from Aramaic or Hebrew name Saul. Leader in the early Jerusalem church. He accompanied both Peter and Paul on separate missionary journeys.

One of his first missions was to carry news of the Jerusalem conference to the believers at Antioch (Acts 15:22). He and Paul left Antioch together on a mission to Asia Minor (15:40–41) and later to Macedonia. In Philippi the two were imprisoned (16:19–24), but they later won the jailer and his family to the Lord after God delivered them from prison.

Later in his ministry Silas teamed with Peter on missions in Pontus and Cappadocia. He also served as Peter’s scribe, writing the first letter from Peter and perhaps other letters. Many believe that he composed and arranged most of the letter since Peter probably had little education.¹

¹ Silas, Silvanus, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, ed. Chad Brand, Charles Draper, Archie England, Steve Bond, E. Ray Clendenen and Trent C. Butler (Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers, 2003). 1502.

TIMOTHY — One of Paul’s most significant traveling companions and coworkers. Timothy was already a Christian (probably converted during the apostle’s first missionary journey) when Paul and Silas passed through Lystra, Timothy’s home, during the second missionary journey (Acts 16:1; cf. 14:6–8, 21). Timothy’s mother was Jewish but a believer, and his father, probably deceased, a Gentile. Timothy had not been circumcised, but had received some training in the Jewish scriptures (2 Timothy 3:15). Wanting Timothy to join him and Silas, Paul circumcised the young disciple so that traveling with the son of a marriage regarded as illegal according to Jewish law would not be such an immediate hindrance to work among Jews (Acts 16:2–3).

Forced to leave Macedonia for Athens, Paul left Timothy and Silas behind in Macedonia (17:1–15). When Timothy joined Paul at Athens, the apostle sent him back northward to Thessalonica (1 Thessalonians 3:1–2). When they were rejoined at Corinth, Timothy again worked alongside Paul (Acts 18:5; 2 Corinthians 1:19). His name occurs with Paul’s in the letters to Thessalonica written from Corinth (1 Thessalonians 1:1; 3:6; 2 Thessalonians 1:1). Again on his third missionary journey, Paul sometimes had Timothy with him as an assistant and sometimes sent him to some location where help was needed but where the apostle could not himself be present (Acts 19:22; 1 Corinthians 4:17; 16:10; 2 Corinthians 1:1). When Paul was in Corinth on the eve of his journey to Jerusalem, and at least during part of that journey, Timothy was with Paul (Acts 20:4; Romans 16:21). Later Timothy worked at Ephesus (1 Timothy 1:3), perhaps going there while Paul went on to Jerusalem. If Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon were written from Rome, then Timothy was there with Paul at least for a short time (Philippians 1:1; 2:19; Colossians 1:1; Philemon 1).

Toward the end of Paul’s life, Timothy proved to be an especially significant helper whose faithful service was remembered by the apostle, as 2 Timothy bears witness (cf. 1 Corinthians 4:17; Philippians 2:22). Paul indeed wanted Timothy to be with him (2 Timothy 4:9, 21). It appears that alongside his faithfulness was a timidity on Timothy’s part, which Paul considered a difficulty, and problems with physical health as well (1 Timothy 4:12; 2 Timothy 1:7; 4:1–5). At some time during his career as a Christian worker Timothy was imprisoned (Hebrews 13:23).¹

¹ Allen C. Myers, The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1987). 1006.

GENTILES — People who are not part of God’s chosen family at birth and thus can be considered pagans. Though not synonymous in English, Gentiles, nations, pagans, heathens are variants chosen by translators to render goyim in Hebrew and ethnoi in Greek. Gentile and nation suggest race or territory, while pagans and heathen suggest religion.¹

The loss of political autonomy and the spread of Hellenism caused the Jews to be increasingly wary of Gentiles during the intertestamental period (cf. Wis. 10–19). Many in the early Church, which had emerged among the Jews of Palestine, maintained this opposition to Gentiles, viewing them as morally and religiously inferior (Matt. 5:47; 6:7; Luke 12:30; Eph. 4:17; cf. 1 Cor. 5:1, pagans; 12:2; 1 Thess. 4:5, heathen). Indeed, both Gentiles and Jews rigidly opposed the followers of Christ (Acts 14:1–2; 2 Cor. 11:26).²

¹ Jack P. Lewis, Gentiles, ed. Chad Brand et al., Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary (Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers, 2003), 638.

cf. compare, see

Wis. Wisdom of Solomon

cf. compare, see

² Allen C. Myers, The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1987). 411.

JERUSALEM — Jerusalem is one of the world’s famous cities. Under that name, it dates from at least the 3rd millennium BC; and today is considered sacred by the adherents of the three great monotheistic faiths, Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The city is set high in the hills of Judah, about 50 km from the Mediterranean, and over 30 km west of the north end of the Dead Sea. It rests on a none-too-level plateau, which slopes noticeably towards the southeast. To the east lies the ridge of Olivet. Access to the city on all sides except the north is hampered by three deep ravines, which join in the Siloam Valley, near the well BirEyyub, southeast of the city. The eastern valley is Kidron; the western is now called the Wadi al-Rababi, and is probably to be equated with the Valley of Hinnom; and the third cuts the city in half before it runs south, and slightly east, to meet the other two. This latter ravine is not mentioned or named in Scripture (although Maktesh, Zephaniah 1:11, may well have been the name of part of it), so it is usually referred to as the Tyropoeon Valley, i.e., the Valley of the Cheese-makers, after Josephus.¹

Image of Temple Model²

¹ D. F. Payne, Jerusalem, New Bible Dictionary, ed. D. R. W. Wood, I. H. Marshall, A. R. Millard, J. I. Packer and D. J. Wiseman, 3rd ed. (Leicester, England; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1996). 557.

² Bible Places Pictorial Library of the Bible Lands, Copyright 2012 (Used with permission)

ANTIOCH — There were several cities in region that bore the name of Antioch. They were founded by Antiochus Epiphanes and the Seleucid dynasty following the death of Alexander the Great. In these passages, we are talking about Antioch in Syria. The city was located on the river Orontes, about 16 miles (26km) from the Mediterranean, and some 300 miles (483km) north of Jerusalem. It was the metropolis of Syria, and afterwards became the capital of the Roman province in Asia. It ranked third, after Rome and Alexandria, in point of importance, of the cities of the Roman Empire. It was called the first city of the East. Christianity was early introduced into it (Acts 11:19, 21, 24), and the name Christian was first applied here to its professors (Acts 11:26). It is intimately connected with the early history of the gospel (Acts 6:5; 11:19, 27, 28, 30; 12:25; 15:22–35; Galatians 2:11, 12). It was the great central point whence missionaries to the Gentiles were sent forth. It was the birth-place of the famous Christian father Chrysostom, who died 407. It bears the modem name of Antakia, and is now a miserable, decaying Turkish town. Like Philippi, it was raised to the rank of a Roman colony. Such colonies were ruled by praetors (Acts 16:20, 21)¹

¹ M. G. Easton, Easton’s Bible Dictionary (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1893).

BARNABAS—according to Acts 4:36-37 a Levite from Cyprus whose cognomen was Joseph and who became a member of the early Christian community in Jerusalem and was surnamed ‘Barnabas’ (Heb., ‘Son of encouragement’) by the apostles. A Diaspora Jew (i.e., one born in a country outside Palestine) who may have come to Jerusalem because of his priestly connections, Barnabas was a cousin of John Mark (Colossians 4:10) and soon became a leader in the church. According to Acts, he introduced Saul (Paul), a fellow Greek-speaking Jewish believer in Jesus, to the apostles in Jerusalem (Acts 9:27); this suggests that Acts knew Barnabas to be well versed in the activities of the Christian movement in Syria, where Saul had become a Christian.

After the persecution of the Hellenists (Jewish Christians whose native language was Greek) in Jerusalem, Barnabas appeared in Antioch-on-the-Orontes as a representative of the Jerusalem church (Acts 11:19-26). There, he affirmed the mission to the Gentiles and worked with Saul as senior partner or supervisor of a Christian mission in Syria-Cilicia. Acts reports that he and Saul took the famine offering from Antioch to Jerusalem (Acts 11:27-30; 12:25). If the reports in Acts are accurate, Barnabas must have had a formative role in the development of Saul’s theological outlook (but see Galatians 1:13-17). Paul does imply that Barnabas was a fellow apostle (1 Corinthians 9:3-6; cf. Acts 14:4, 14). Acts also records that both Paul and Barnabas chose to work with their hands as tradesmen, even though their families had financial means (cf. Acts 4:36; 23:16).

According to Acts, Paul and Barnabas worked together on a mission tour to Cyprus and the Iconium region of Asia Minor (Acts 13:1-14:28), appeared together at the Jerusalem conference (Acts 15:1-35), but then disagreed and separated over the question of allowing John Mark to accompany them on a second tour (Acts 15:36-41) after he had cut short his participation in an earlier tour (13:13). Barnabas’ role in the dispute in Antioch over whether circumcised and uncircumcised believers should eat together is obscure (Galatians 2:11-14). According to Acts 15:1-35, Barnabas was a strong defender of not binding circumcision on Gentile converts. Yet he apparently had great respect for Peter and sided with him (and Mark) in the dispute with Paul.

Acts speaks of Barnabas as ‘a good man, full of the Holy Spirit and of faith’ (11:24). Some traditions beyond the canonical writings regard him as the author of the Letter to the Hebrews.¹

Heb. Hebrew

¹ Paul J. Achtemeier, Harper & Row and Society of Biblical Literature, Harper’s Bible Dictionary, 1st ed. (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1985). 94.

APOSTLE—Derivation of the Greek word apostolos, one who is sent. Apostolos was used to refer to a ship or a group of ships. Later it designated a bill, invoice, or passport.

In the New Testament, apostle has three broad uses. First, it referred to the Twelve whom Jesus chose to train for the task of carrying His message to the world. Following His resurrection, Jesus commissioned them for this task. These men had been with Jesus from the beginning of His ministry and were witnesses to His resurrection. Paul was an apostle in this sense because he had seen the risen Christ.

The second designation of apostle is a person authorized by a local congregation with the safe delivery of specific gifts for another Christian church (2 Corinthians 8:23; Philippians 2:25).

The third sense of apostle is those whom Jesus Christ has sent. Paul refers to a number of people as apostles in this sense (Romans 16:7; 1 Corinthians 9:1, 5; 12:28; Galatians 1:17–19).¹

¹ Steve Bond, Apostle, ed. Chad Brand et al., Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary (Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers, 2003), 88.

JUDAIZERS — Christian Jews who, during the apostolic and early postapostolic periods, attempted to impose the Jewish way of life on gentile Christians. The Greek verb, which literally means to Judaize, is found only one time in the New Testament(Galatians 2:14), where it actually means to live according to Jewish customs and traditions. In that passage Paul quotes part of a brief conversation he had with Peter several years earlier: If you, though a Jew, live like a Gentile and not like a Jew, how can you compel the Gentiles to live like Jews [i.e., to Judaize]? (RSV). The issue that concerned Paul was not simply whether or not a person followed the Jewish way of life but whether one erroneously thought that salvation was attained thereby.

The growing number of gentile converts to Christianity forced Jewish Christians to face a very difficult problem: Must a Gentile first become a Jew in order to be a Christian? Some Jewish Christians gave a positive answer to this question, and these became known as the circumcision party (Acts 11:2; Galatians 2:12). Others, such as Peter and Barnabas, and especially Paul, vigorously disagreed. While these two radically different points of view could have split the early church into two major factions, that possibility did not occur.

Paul and Barnabas debated with members of the circumcision party before an assembly of apostles and elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4–12). The assembly, led by James the Just (the brother of Jesus), listened to both sides and decided to issue a compromise. A letter to the gentile churches was drafted in which it was recommended that gentile converts to Christianity adhere to only a few absolutely essential obligations: (1) abstention from meat sacrificed to idols, (2) abstention from eating blood or blood-saturated meat, and (3) abstention from unchastity(verses 23–29). These three obligations were probably singled out because they were thought to have been important features of those laws regarded as part of the covenant between God and Noah according to Jewish tradition.¹

RSV Revised Standard Version

¹ Walter A. Elwell and Philip Wesley Comfort, Tyndale Bible Dictionary, Tyndale reference library (Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 2001). 752-54.

1 Corinthians 5:9

⁹ In my letter to you I told you not to associate with people who continue to commit sexual sins.

Acts 19:9

⁹ But when some people became stubborn, refused to believe, and had nothing good to say in front of the crowd about the way [of Christ], he left them. He took his disciples and held daily discussions in the lecture hall of Tyrannus.

Acts 15:36

³⁶ After a while Paul said to Barnabas, Let’s go back to every city where we spread the Lord’s word. We’ll visit the believers to see how they’re doing.

Acts 18:1

¹After this, Paul left Athens and went to the city of Corinth.

Acts 18:2–3; 18–19

²In Corinth he met a Jewish man named Aquila and his wife Priscilla. Aquila had been born in Pontus, and they had recently come from Italy because Claudius had ordered all Jews to leave Rome. Paul went to visit them, ³ and because they made tents for a living as he did, he stayed with them and they worked together.

¹⁸ After staying in Corinth quite a while longer, Paul left [for Ephesus]. Priscilla and Aquila went with him. In the city of Cenchrea, Aquila had his hair cut, since he had taken a vow. From Cenchrea they took a boat headed for Syria ¹⁹ and arrived in the city of Ephesus, where Paul left Priscilla and Aquila. Paul went into the synagogue and had a discussion with the Jews.

Acts 17:13–15

¹³ But when the Jews in Thessalonica found out that Paul was also spreading God’s word in Berea, they went there to upset and confuse the people. ¹⁴ The believers immediately sent Paul to the seacoast, but Silas and Timothy stayed in Berea.

¹⁵ The men who escorted Paul took him all the way to the city of Athens. When the men left Athens, they took instructions back to Silas and Timothy to join Paul as soon as possible.

Acts 18:5

⁵ But when Silas and Timothy arrived from Macedonia, Paul devoted all his time to teaching the word of God. He assured the Jews that Jesus is the Messiah.

Acts 18:18–23

¹⁸ After staying in Corinth quite a while longer, Paul left [for Ephesus]. Priscilla and Aquila went with him. In the city of Cenchrea, Aquila had his hair cut, since he had taken a vow. From Cenchrea they took a boat headed for Syria ¹⁹ and arrived in the city of Ephesus, where Paul left Priscilla and Aquila. Paul went into the synagogue and had a discussion with the Jews.

²⁰ The Jews asked him to stay longer, but he refused. ²¹ As he left, he told them, I’ll come back to visit you if God wants me to.

Paul took a boat from Ephesus ²² and arrived in the city of Caesarea. He went [to Jerusalem], greeted the church, and went back to the city of Antioch.

²³ After spending some time in Antioch, Paul went through the regions of Galatia and Phrygia, where he strengthened [the faith of] all the disciples.

Acts 19:1, 8–12

¹While Apollos was in Corinth, Paul traveled through the interior provinces to get to the city of Ephesus. He met some disciples in Ephesus

⁸ For three months Paul would go into the synagogue and speak boldly. He had discussions with people to convince them about the kingdom of God. ⁹ But when some people became stubborn, refused to believe, and had nothing good to say in front of the crowd about the way [of Christ], he left them. He took his disciples and held daily discussions in the lecture hall of Tyrannus. ¹⁰ This continued for two years so that all the Jews and Greeks who lived in the province of Asia heard the word of the Lord.

¹¹ God worked unusual miracles through Paul. ¹² People would take handkerchiefs and aprons that had touched Paul’s skin to those who were sick. Their sicknesses would be cured, and evil spirits would leave them.

1 Corinthians 1:11

¹¹ Brothers and sisters, some people from Chloe’s family have made it clear to me that you are quarreling among yourselves.

1 Corinthians 7:1

¹ Now, concerning the things that you wrote about: It’s good for men not to get married.

1 Corinthians 16:17

¹⁷ I am glad that Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus came here. They have made up for your absence.

1.   Simon J. Kistemaker and William Hendriksen, New Testament Commentary: Exposition of the First Epistle to the Corinthians, New Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1993), 32.

2.   John MacArthur, 1 Corinthians: The MacArthur New Testament Commentary (Chicago: Moody Press, c1984).

3.   J. I. Packer, Merrill Chapin Tenney, and William White, Nelson’s Illustrated Manners and Customs of the Bible (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1980), 154.

4.   Walter A. Elwell and Barry J. Beitzel, Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1988), 514.

5.   John F. Walvoord, Roy B. Zuck, and Dallas Theological Seminary, The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures, vol. 2 (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985), 505.

1 CORINTHIANS

1 Corinthians 1:1–9

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1:1 From Paul, called to be an apostle of Christ Jesus by the will of God, and from Sosthenes, our brother in the Christian faith.

Paul(view image) opened his first letter to the Corinthians by offering a warm salutation. He identified himself and Sosthenes as their brothers in the Christian faith. This was probably more valuable than simply identifying the author of a letter. Paul and Sosthenes were well known to the Christians in Corinth(view image) due to their role in establishing the church at Corinth a few years earlier (Acts 18). Paul had come to Corinth and debated with the Jews and evangelized the Gentiles, working in the city for more than eighteen months (v. 11). Sosthenes was attacked by an angry crowd when Gallio, the Roman judge, refused to hear the Jews’ complaints about Paul’s preaching of the Gospel (v. 17).

Paul identified himself as the apostle of Jesus Christ called by the will of God while referring to Sosthenes as our brother. Paul was not saying that he was more important than Sosthenes. Rather, Paul gave his greetings for both of them but emphasized his particular authority as an apostle of Jesus Christ. This was going to be a serious letter and he reminded them of the office by which it was declared, stating that his apostleship was in and of Jesus Christ and was vested in him by the will of God (Galatians 1:1; 15–17). Thus, his message did not come from man’s intellect. Instead, the One Who called him to apostleship gave it to him.

There was a leader of the synagogue in Corinth by the name of Sosthenes (Acts 18:17) Perhaps this was the same man that Paul now included in his salutation. By including Sosthenes, Paul let the church in Corinth know that he served with their fellow countryman who was also his companion