Introduction to Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals

By Rekha Sharma

The book on Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals deals with health-promoting nutritional factors and bioactive constituents, their potential health implications and mechanisms of action. There are five major units viz., Introduction to Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals, Probiotics, Prebiotics, other Food Components with Potential Health Benefits and Non-Nutrient Effect of Specific Nutrients. These five major units have been presented in forty chapters describing chemistry, sources, metabolism and bioavailability, the effect of processing, physiological effects, effects on human health and potential applications in risk reduction of diseases of various bioactive compounds. This book covers the 'Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals syllabus, taught in various Indian universities. I hope this book will be handy for Clinical Nutrition, Biotechnology, Food Technology, Food Engineering, Nutrition and Dietetics students.
Contents:
Unit – I: Introduction to Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals
1.1 History and Definition of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals
1.2 Classification of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals
1.3 Perceived Effects of Diet on Disease Prevention
Unit – II: Probiotics
2.1 Introduction to Probiotics, Prebiotics and Synbiotics
2.2 Taxonomy and Important Features of Probiotic Microorganisms
2.3 Health Benefits of Probiotics
2.4 Probiotics in various Foods: Fermented Milk Products, Non-milk Products etc.
2.5 Quality Assurance of Probiotics and Safety
Unit – III: Prebiotics
3.1 Oligosaccharides
3.2 Dietary Fiber
3.3 Resistant Starch
3.4 Gums
Unit – IV: Other Food Components with Potential Health Benefits
4.1 Polyphenols
4.2 Tannins and Catechins
4.3 Phytoestrogens
4.4 Phytosterols
4.5 Glucosinolates
4.6 Carotenoids and Anthocyanins
4.7 Lycopene
4.8 Curcumin
4.9 Organosulfur Compounds
4.10 An Introduction to Antinutritional Factors in Plant Foods
4.10A Phytate
4.10B An Introduction to Enzymes
4.10C Protease Inhibitors
4.10D Amylase Inhibitor
4.10E Saponins and Haemagglutinins
4.11 An Introduction to Active Biodynamic Principles in Spices, Condiments and Other Plant Materials
4.11A Resveratrol
4.11B Quercetin and Kaempferol
4.11C Cinnamaldehyde, Crocin and Luteolin
4.11D Capsaicin
4.11E Piperine
4.11F Eugenol
4.11G Gingerol
4.11H Apigenin
4.11I Rosmarinic Acid
4.11J Thymoquinone
4.11K Fenugreek and Diosgenin
Unit – V: Non-Nutrient Effects of Specific Nutrients
5.1 Proteins, Peptides and Nucleotides
5.2 Conjugated Linoleic Acid
5.3 Omega-3 Fatty Acids
5.4 Vitamins
5.5 Minerals

• Language: English
• Publisher: PHARMAMED PRESS
• Release date: Jul 13, 2023
• ISBN: 9789395039017

Book preview

Abbreviations

Unit ‐ I Introduction to Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals

chapter ‐ 1.1

History and Definition of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals

Dr Rekha Sharma

Professor, UGC-Human Resource Development Centre,

Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University

Introduction

The role and requirements of six significant nutrients, viz., carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and water present in foods are well known. Besides these nutrients, certain health-promoting essential nutritional factors are present in foods that have protective and preventive functions for our body. The health-promoting effect of foods beyond their nutritional value is gaining wide popularity. This expansive vision of nutrition has led to the concept of functionality.

The principal reasons for the growth of the functional food market are the ageing population, health trends and public education. Due to the increase in life expectancy, the number of elderly continues to rise in the total population. Obesity, heart disease, cancer, osteoporosis and arthritis continue to climb worldwide. The internet has opened the doors for a wealth of information. People have become more nutrition savvy than ever before. Their curiosity regarding health care information can be met by just a single click, giving them vast knowledge about the etiology, prevention, and treatment of various diseases. Similarly, consumers are becoming more alert to health claims and are eager to know advanced information about food products.

History of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals

During the last 2000 years, from the time of Hippocrates (460–377 BC) to the beginning of modern medicine, there was little distinction between food and drugs. Hippocrates, the father of medicine, clearly recognised the essential relationship between food and health and emphasised that ‘‘...differences of diseases depend on nutriment’’. The concept of Medicine and food are isogonics originated in ancient China and transported to Japan long ago. Similarly, the doctrine of Hippocrates, Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food, has had a rebirth.

In 1984, a research team headed by Professor Soichi Arai at the University of Tokyo initiated the first national project on functional foods. The Systematic analysis and development of food functions project was sponsored by Japan’s Ministry of Education, Science and Culture (MESC). The food value criteria were defined in three categories:

1. Primary functions identified as functions of nutrients.

2. Secondary function refers to sensation.

3. Tertiary function as body modulating function of non–nutrients

During 1988-1991, the second project was taken up by Arai et al. on ‘analysis of body modulating (Tertiary) functions of foods. The project's thrust was on the tertiary functions of foods, i.e., body modulating function of non-nutrients. With the advancement of DNA microarray techniques, the last project was undertaken in 1992, which focused on Analysis and molecular design of functional foods. The sub-themes were body-regulating food factors, body defending food factors and developing a technological basis specific to designing functional foods at the molecular level.

In 1989, Dr Stephen L. DeFelice, M.D coined the term ‘nutraceutical’, which is a hybrid or contraction of nutrition and pharmaceutical. He established the Foundation for Innovation in Medicine in 1976 in New York, US.

In 1991, the Ministry of Health and Welfare, Japan, launched the world’s first policy, Foods for Specified Health Uses (FOSHU), for legally permitting the commercialization of some functional foods. Each of the FOSHU products claimed a certain degree of health benefit. The first FOSHU product approved in 1993 was ‘hypoallergenic rice’ developed after immunological studies. These scientific activities were reported in Nature news with the headline, Japan explores the boundary between food and medicine, which took everyone back to the old days saying, Medicine and food are isogonics'.

The research team scientifically investigated hundreds of fruits and vegetables for functional food components. The advancement in this latest science also involved the introduction of sophisticated methods, viz., assessment of the oxidative stress due to food factors using the "XYZ’ evaluation technique, compilation of data on the structurefunction relationships of non-nutrients and evaluation of individual food factors at the molecular level using DNA microarray techniques.

The initiation of functional food science and implementing of the FOSHU policy in Japan had a substantial impact on many countries worldwide, particularly in Europe. In 1995, the UK Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food defined (although temporarily) functional foods as those incorporating components that confer specific medical or physiological benefits other than nutritional effects. The International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) Europe addressed the present status by claiming that they stand today at the threshold of a new frontier in nutritional science. They also stated that the concept of food is changing from a past emphasis on eating to satiate hunger into a focus on the potential uses of food to reduce the risk of chronic illness.

Nutrigenomic research institutions formed consortia to merge their activities aiming at evidence-based functional food science through cooperation in developing systems biology. In North America, the National Institute of Health (NIH) provided financial support for an ongoing research project on the relationship between diet and genes and between diet and disease in collaboration with nine research centres and four external affiliated organisations.

Europe launched a six years project in January 2004 that commenced with the participation of 22 research institutions from ten different countries. The European Union allocated a budget of 17.3 million euros for this project. A research organisation was set up in Oceania specialising in gut health research, and New Zealand and Australia played a leading role.

These initiatives were replicated in Canada, China, South Korea, Singapore, and other countries to form a global network. These countries launched a clear strategy to exchange information and invest their research resources in domains where they can capitalise on their strengths.

The history of functional food will remain incomplete if the views of Dr Stephen DeFelice, described by Jeffrey K. Aronson (2017) in his article published in the British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology is not mentioned. Dr Stephen DeFelice originally invented the term ‘nutraceutical’ in 1989. During the 25th National Congress of the Italian Chemical Society-SCI, held at the University of Calabria in 2014, he delivered a lecture on ‘Nutrition stymied: the nutraceutical solution’ in which he confessed that nutraceuticals do not work and ‘the quest to demonstrate whether … long-term supplementation [with nutraceuticals] can prevent serious diseases … has come to an end.

He stated that ‘within the past decade, the past ten years, many studies have been published on dietary supplements and diets … and most of them have proven that these things do not work. The results of clinical studies have shown that they do not work. Later Dr DeFelice explained that it might be because the cell does not need them". If the cells are not deficient, it does not need them. The cells just do what they want to do. … There’s a lack of efficacy. Why is there a lack of toxicity? And then he came up with his theory. It’s called the cell–nutraceutical acceptance–rejection theory’. Dr DeFelice did not explain his theory; he merely said, ‘it is self-explanatory.

Figure 1.1.1 Fruits as Functional Foods

Health Claims

The health claim for each functional food was defined by the three different phrases viz., nutrient function claims, other function claims, and reduction of disease risk claims. Japan was the first country to legalize health claims under Foods for Specified health uses (FOSHU) in 1991. There were ten categories of health claims under FOSHU, which are presented in Table 1.1.1.

Table 1.1.1 Categories of Health Claims under Foods for Specified Health Uses (FOSHU)

Since 1991, about 1271 products have been given a green signal under FOSHU. Recently about 400 foods have been approved under Japan’s 2015 Foods with Function Claims (FFC) regulation.

The structure/function claims in the United States were expressed in the Dietary Supplement Health Education Act (DSHEA) in 1994. European Union established a science-based approach for concepts in functional food science as Functional Food Science in Europe (FUFOSE) in 1996. Codex adopted the guidelines in which the nutrient function claim was included in 1997. In India, the nutraceutical regulation was implemented in 2010 under The Food Safety and Standard Authority of India (FSSAI) Act.

Important milestones in the history of Functional foods and Nutraceuticals are shown in Table 1.1.2.

Table 1.1.2 Important milestones in the history of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals

Definitions of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals

Functional foods are found in many fruits, vegetables, grains, herbs and spices to provide a health benefit, lower the risk of certain diseases or affect a particular body process. Different terminologies are used for functional foods such as Nutraceuticals, designer foods, vita foods, pharma foods, medicinal foods, prescriptive foods, therapeutic foods, superfoods, foodiceuticals and medifoods.

There were no universally accepted definitions for nutraceuticals and functional foods till 2017, although commonality existed between the definitions offered by different health-oriented professional organizations. But finally, in 2017, the Functional Food Centre (USA) defined functional foods by providing clarity and a more comprehensive understanding of their meaning.

The following health-oriented professional organizations have defined functional foods and nutraceuticals.

•The International Food Information Council (IFIC), USA

•The International Life Sciences Institute of North America (ILSI)

•Health Canada

•Nutrition Business Journal (US)

•The American Dietetic Association (ADA)

•The American Council on Science and Health

•The Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences (IOM)

•According to the International Food Information Council (IFIC), functional foods are foods or dietary components that may provide a health benefit beyond basic nutrition.

•The International Life Sciences Institute of North America (ILSI) has defined functional foods as foods that by physiologically active food components provide health benefits beyond basic nutrition .

•Health Canada defines functional foods as similar in appearance to a conventional food, consumed as part of the usual diet, with demonstrated physiological benefits, and/or to reduce the risk of chronic disease beyond basic nutritional functions.

•The Nutrition Business Journal classified functional food as food fortified with added or concentrated ingredients to functional levels, which improves health or performance. Functional foods include enriched cereals, bread, sports drinks, bars, fortified snack foods, baby foods, prepared meals, and more .

•The American Dietetic Association (ADA) states that functional foods, including whole foods and fortified, enriched, or enhanced foods, have a potentially beneficial effect on health when consumed as part of a varied diet and on a regular basis, at effective levels,

•The American Council on Science and Health states that functional foods are whole, fortified, enriched, or enhanced foods that provide health benefits beyond the provision of essential nutrients when consumed at efficacious levels as part of a varied diet on a regular basis.

•The National Academy of Medicine (NAM), formerly called the Institute of Medicine (IoM), states that functional foods are those in which the concentrations of one or more ingredients have been manipulated or modified to enhance their contribution to a healthful diet.

•European Commission Concerted Action on Functional Food Science in Europe considers foods to be functional if they have a beneficial effect on one or more functions of the body and are still in the form of food, not a dietary supplement.

•In Japan, the FOSHU organization states that functional foods are processed foods containing ingredients that aid specific body functions in addition to being nutritious.

•The Functional Food Center/Functional Food Institute (FFC), Dallas, USA (2017) defines functional foods as: Natural or processed foods that contain biologically active compounds; which, in defined, effective, and non-toxic amounts, provide a clinically proven and documented health benefit utilizing specific biomarkers for the prevention, management, or treatment of chronic disease or its symptoms.

Nutraceuticals

The above definitions given by the Health-oriented professional organizations were for functional foods. The Foundation for Innovation in Medicine, the Nutrition Business Journal and the Health Canada defined nutraceuticals as follows:

Stephen L. DeFelice, M.D. The founder and chairman of the Foundation for Innovation in Medicine

•The term nutraceutical is a hybrid or contraction of nutrition and pharmaceutical . It was coined in 1989 by Stephen L. DeFelice, M.D ., who established the Foundation for Innovation in Medicine in 1976 in New York, the US, an educational foundation established to encourage discoveries in medicine.

•Dr Stephen DeFelice (1992) defined nutraceutical as any substance that may be considered a food or part of a food and provides medical or health benefits, including the prevention and treatment of disease. Such products may range from isolated nutrients, dietary supplements, and diets to genetically engineered ‘‘designer’’ foods, herbal products and processed products such as cereals, soups and beverages."

•On the other hand, Health Canada states that nutraceuticals are a product that is "prepared from foods but sold in the form of pills or powders (potions), or other medicinal forms not usually associated with foods. A nutraceutical is demonstrated to have a physiological benefit or provide protection against chronic disease.

•The Nutrition Business Journal states that it uses the term nutraceutical for anything that is consumed primarily or particularly for health reasons. Based on that definition, a functional food would be a kind of nutraceutical.

•In India, nutraceuticals are food components made from herbal or botanical raw materials, which are used for preventing or treating different types of acute and chronic maladies.

Figure 1.1.2 Herbs as Functional Foods

The regulatory bodies of Japan, Europe and America regarding the concept of functional foods are as follows.

According to the Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare, Foods for Specified Health Uses (FOSHU) are:

•Foods that are expected to have a specific health effect due to relevant constituents, foods from which allergens have been removed, and foods where the effect of such addition or removal has been scientifically evaluated, and permission has been granted to make claims regarding the specific beneficial effects on health expected from their consumption.

•Foods identified as FOSHU are required to prove that the final food product, but not isolated individual component(s), is likely to exert health or physiological effect when consumed as part of an ordinary diet.

•Moreover, FOSHU products should be in the form of ordinary foods (i.e., not pills or capsules).

Functional food: a European consensus by Functional Food Science in Europe (FUFOSE): The unique features of functional foods are:

•being a conventional or everyday food

•to be consumed as part of the normal/usual diet

•composed of naturally occurring (as opposed to synthetic) components, perhaps in unnatural concentration or present in foods that would not normally supply them

•having a positive effect on target function(s) beyond nutritive value/basic nutrition

•may enhance well-being and health and/or reduce the risk of disease or provide health benefits to improve the quality of life, including physical, psychological and behavioural performances

•have authorised and scientifically based claims.

Dietary Supplement Health Education Act (DSHEA)) United States (1994) formally defined "dietary supplement "using several criteria.

•A dietary supplement is a product (other than tobacco) that is intended to supplement the diet that bears or contains one or more of the following dietary ingredients: a vitamin, a mineral, a herb or other botanical, an amino acid, a dietary substance for use by man to supplement the diet by increasing the total daily intake, or a concentrate, metabolite, constituent, extract, or combinations of these ingredients.

•is intended for ingestion in pill, capsule, tablet, or liquid form.

•is not represented for use as a conventional food or as the sole item of a meal or diet.

•is labelled as a dietary supplement

•includes products such as an approved new drug, certified antibiotic, or licensed biologic that was marketed as a dietary supplement or food before approval, certification, or license (unless the Secretary of Health and Human Services waives this provision).

Conclusion

Functional foods are generally linked to health promotion. The physiological effects of functional food or bioactive compounds may vary. Still, their categories of action include physical performance, cognitive, behavioural, and psychological function, organ or system function, and combating chronic disease.

The term ‘functional food’ was born in Japan, and the Japanese were the first to observe that food could have a role beyond nutrient supply. Japan was the first country to legislate these products as ‘Foods of Specified Health Use’. Europe and the American countries later incorporated the concept of food's added value.

The Functional Food Center (FFC), Functional Food Institute, USA (2017) defines functional foods as: natural or processed foods that contain biologically active compounds; which, in defined, effective, and non-toxic amounts, provide a clinically proven and documented health benefit utilizing specific biomarkers for the prevention, management, or treatment of chronic disease or its symptoms.

Nutraceuticals are defined as chemical components of food, when ingested in appreciable amounts, demonstrate attributes such as good bioavailability and bioefficacy and exert positive effects on health characterized by disease prevention and alleviation.

References

1. Andlauer, W. & Furst P. (2002). Nutraceuticals: a piece of history, present status and outlook. Food Research International , 171-176

2. Arai, S., Osawa, T., Ohigashi, H., Yoshikawa, M., Kaminogawa, S., Waranabe, M., & Ogawa, T., Okubo K., Watanabe, S., Nishino, H., Shinohara K., Esashi, T., & Hirahara T. (2001). A Mainstay of Functional Food Science in Japan-History, Present Status and Future Outlook. Bioscience, Biotechnology and Biochemistry , 1-13.

3. Arai, S., Vattem, D., & Kumagai, H. (2016). Functional Foods-History and Concepts. In D. A. Vattam, & M. Vatsala, Functional Foods, Nutraceuticals and Natural Products, Concepts and Applications, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.: DEStech Publications Inc., 1-18

4. Gur, J., Mawuntu, M., & Martirosyan, K. (2018). FFC’s Advancement of Functional Food Definition. Functional Foods in Health and Disease , 385-397.

5. Aronson, J.K, (2017). REVIEW-THEMED ISSUE, Defining ‘nutraceuticals’: neither nutritious nor pharmaceutical. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacol , 8-19.

6. Kalra E, K. (2003). Nutraceutical - Definition and Introduction AAPS Pharm Sci , 1-2.

7. Singh, J., & Singh, S. (2012). Classification, Regulatory Acts and Applications of Nutraceuticals for Health. International Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences , 177-187.

8. Wildman, R., & Kelley, M. (2007). Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods. In R.E.C. Wildman, Handbook on Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods (pp. 1-22). Taylor and Francis Group: CRC Press.

9. http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/33348/1/Unit-11.pdf accessed on 12 June 2018

10. http://www.fimdefelice.org accessed on 12 th June 2018

11. https://www.nutraingredients-asia.com/Article/2016/10/10/Japan-moves-beyond-FOSHU-Over-400-products-approved-under-new-health-claims-regime-in-last-year accessed on 1 April 2019

12. https://youtu.be/gCeSLR5PFIc accessed on 1 April 2019.

Unit ‐ I Introduction to Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals

chapter ‐ 1.2

Classification of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals

Dr Rekha Sharma

Professor, UGC-Human Resource Development Centre,

Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University

Introduction

The number of purported nutraceutical substances is in the hundreds, and some of the most commonly known substances include carotenoids, polyphenols, fibers, curcumin, and allyl sulfur compounds. In light of a long and ever-growing list of nutraceutical substances, organization systems are needed for easier understanding and application. This is particularly true for academic instruction and product formulation by food companies. Depending upon one’s interest and background, the appropriate organizational scheme for nutraceuticals can vary. Nutraceutical factors can be organised in several ways, whether for academic instruction, clinical trial design, functional food development, or dietary recommendations.

Classification of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals

Functional foods may be classified in various ways and can be identified/selected based on their properties, clinical significance or composition. Some of the essential criteria used for classifying functional foods are:

1. Food Source

2. Nutrient and Non-Nutrient Source

3. Organ/Organ System

4. Modifications in foods

5. Specific Foods

6. Mechanism of actions

7. Chemical Nature

A. Classification based on Food Source

According to origin or food source, Functional foods may be classified into the plant, animal and microbial groups, as depicted in Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.2.1 Classification of functional foods according to the food source

(a) Plant-derived functional foods: Plant-derived functional foods are separated into primary and secondary metabolites; primary metabolites are plant compounds necessary for growth and include plant proteins, beta-glucans, and omega-3 fatty acids. The secondary metabolites are not essential for growth but are used for plant survival mechanisms and include phytoestrogens, antioxidants, vitamins, tocopherols, steroids and gamma-linolenic acid (GLA).

(b) Animal-derived functional foods: Zoochemicals, which are animal-derived functional foods, include omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, conjugated linolenic acid (CLA), small peptides, whey and casein and glucosamine. Omega-3 fatty acids include alpha-linolenic, docosahexaenoic (DHA), and eicosapentaenoic (EPA), whereas Omega-6 fatty acids include linoleic, gamma-linoleic, and arachidonic fatty acids.

Figure 1.2.2 Milk and Milk Products as Functional Foods

(c) Microbial functional foods: Microbial-derived functional foods include four groups of foods viz., Probiotics, Prebiotics, Symbiotics, and Synbiotics. Recently, new food has been included, and that is Postbiotics.

(i) Probiotics: Probiotics are the mono or mixed culture of living microorganisms, which, when ingested in specific amounts, have a positive impact on host health beyond conventional nutritional effects. These stimulate the growth of certain bacteria in the colon, thus improving health. Lactobacilli and Bifidobacteria are most often used as probiotics , which can be given along with fermented foods, e.g., yoghurt and fermented vegetables/ meat.

(ii) Prebiotics: Prebiotics are ingredients/compounds that have a beneficial effect on microflora in the large intestine of the host, e.g., fibre, fructooligosaccharides, lactulose, sugar alcohols. Generally, they are carbohydrates that may be fermented in the large bowel and stimulate the growth of potentially beneficial Bifidobacteria. The most prevalent forms of prebiotics are nutritionally classed as soluble fiber.

(iii) Symbiotics and Synbiotics : Symbiotics contain probiotics and prebiotics combined randomly, while synbiotics contain specific probiotics and prebiotics mixed to benefit one another. Because the word alludes to synergism, this term should be reserved for products in which the prebiotic compound selectively favors the probiotic compound. E.g., a product containing oligofructose and probiotic bifidobacteria would fulfil the definition.

(iv) Postbiotics: Postbiotics are the non-viable bacterial products or metabolic byproducts from probiotic microorganisms with biologic activity in the host. Generally, postbiotics include bacterial metabolic byproducts, such as bacteriocins, organic acids, ethanol, diacetyl, acetaldehydes and hydrogen peroxide. Still, it is also found that certain heat-killed probiotics can retain critical bacterial structures that may exert biological activity in the host.

Non-Food Sources: Apart from the plant, animal and microbial sources, there are nonfood sources of nutraceuticals. Using modern fermentation methods, few nutraceuticals can also be produced. For example, amino acids and their derivatives have been produced by bacteria. Some algae and bacteria produce Eicosapentaenioc acid. But now, using recombinant – genetic techniques, this EPA can also be produced by non – EPA producing bacteria.

B. Classification based on Nutrient and Non-Nutrient Components

From the nutritional viewpoint, these can be categorised as nutrients and non-nutrients, as presented in Table 1.2.1.

Table 1.2.1 Classification of Functional foods based on nutrients and non-nutrient components

C. Classification based on Organ/Organ System

Another classification is by the target organ/system benefitted. This is of clinical significance, especially concerning treating and managing various diseases. Based on their beneficial impact on different organ systems, examples of functional foods have been presented in Table 1.2.2.

Table 1.2.2 Classification of functional foods according to organ/organ system

D. Classification According to Modifications in Foods

Some foods are naturally functional and do not require much modification, whereas others do. Foods may be made functional by:

1. Elimination of components, e.g., toxins or allergenic proteins

2. Increasing the concentration of natural components, e.g., fortification

3. Addition of components with beneficial effects, e.g., non-vitamin antioxidants.

4. Addition of beneficial microbes, e.g., some yeasts and bacteria.

5. Replacement of a component, usually a macronutrient, e.g., fat replaced with modified or emulsified carbohydrates.

6. Enhancement of bioavailability of components.

According to modifications done, the foods are classified as:

1. Fortified foods

2. Enriched foods

3. Enhanced foods

4. Altered foods

Figure 1.2.3 Enriched bread

Fortified foods are foods fortified with additional nutrients, e.g., vitamin-fortified milk and Calcium-fortified orange juice. These fortified nutrients are present in foods but are not in appreciable amounts.

Enriched foods are foods with added new nutrients or components not generally found in a particular food, e.g., folic acid enriched bread, butter with phytochemicals, probiotics etc.

Altered products are foods from which harmful components have been removed, reduced or replaced with another substance with beneficial effects. e.g., fibers as fat replacers in high-fat products.

Enhanced commodities are foods in which one of the components has been naturally enhanced through special growing conditions, new feed composition, genetic manipulation or otherwise. Examples are eggs with increased omega 3 fatty acids content achieved by altered chicken feed, conjugated linoleic acid enriched milk accomplished by feed manipulation etc.

E. Classification based on Nutraceutical Factors in Specific Foods

This classification is more appropriate when there is interest in a particular nutraceutical compound or related compounds. Several nutraceutical substances are found in higher amounts in specific foods or food families. For example, capsaicinoids are found primarily in pepper fruit, and allyl sulfur (organosulfur) compounds are chiefly concentrated in onions and garlic. The nutraceuticals that are considered exceptional to certain foods or food families have been presented in Table 1.2.3.

Table 1.2.3 Foods with Higher Content of Specific Nutraceutical Substances

Figure 1.2.3 Fruits and Vegetables as Functional Foods

F. Classification based on Mechanism of Action

This system groups nutraceutical factors together, irrespective of food source, based upon their proven or assumed physiological properties. Among the classes are anticarcinogenic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, osteoprotective etc. This classification would be helpful to an individual genetically predisposed to a particular medical condition. Researchers are trying to develop potent functional foods for such persons or planning diet and product developers to develop a new functional food. The different groups of nutraceuticals according to proven properties are as follows:

•Nutraceuticals having anticancer properties include components such as capsaicin, genistein, daidzein, α-Tocotrienol and γ–Tocotrienol, Conjugated Linoleic acid, Lactobacillus acidophilus , Sphingolipids, Limonene, diallyl sulfide, Ajoene, α-Tocopherol, Enterolactone, glycyrrhizin, Equol, Curcumin, Ellagic acid, Lutein, Carnosol and L. bulgaricus .

•Positive Influence on Blood Lipid profile: β- Glucan, γ-Tocotrienol, δ-Tocotrienol, MUFA, Quercetin, ω -3 PUFAs, Resveratrol, tannins, β-Sitosterol, saponins, guar and pectin.

•Antioxidant activity: Conjugated Linoleic acid, Ascorbic acid, β- Carotene, Polyphenolics, Tocopherols, Tocotrienols, Indole -3- carbonyl, α-Tocopherol, Ellagic acid, Lycopene, Lutein, Glutathione, Hydroxytyrosol, Luteolin, Oleuropein, Catechins, Gingerol, Chlorogenic acid, Tannins

•Anti-Inflammatory: linolenic acid, EPA, DHA, GLA (Gamma-linolenic acid), capsaicin, Quercetin and Curcumin.

•Osteogenesis or Bone protective nutraceuticals : CLA, Soy protein, Genistein, Daidzein, Calcium, Casein phosphopeptides, FOS (fructooligosaccharides), Inulin.

Figure 1.2.4 Spices as Functional Foods

G. Classification of nutraceuticals based on chemical nature

This classification permits nutraceuticals to be categorized under molecular/elemental groups. This preliminary model includes several large groups, which then provide a basis for subclassification or subgroups, and so on. One way to group nutraceuticals grossly is as follows:

•Isoprenoid derivatives

•Phenolic substances

•Fatty acids and structural lipids

•Carbohydrates and derivatives

•Amino acid-based substances

•Microbes

•Minerals

(a) Isoprenoid Derivatives (Terpenoids): Isoprenoids and terpenoids are terms used to refer to the same class of molecules. These substances are one of the largest groups of secondary plant metabolites. Many famous nutraceutical families, such as carotenoids, tocopherols, tocotrienols, simple terpenes and saponins, come under this group. This group is also referred to as isoprenoid derivatives because isoprene is the principal building block molecule synthesized from acetyl coenzyme A (CoA).

(b) Phenolic Compounds: Phenolic compounds are also considered secondary metabolites. The base for the family of molecules is a phenol structure, which is a hydroxyl group on an aromatic ring. This structure forms larger molecules, viz. anthocyanins, coumarins, isoflavones, flavonones, flavonols, tannins, and lignin.

(c) Carbohydrates and Derivatives: Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) is the glucose derivative and functions as an antioxidant. Many plants produce some oligosaccharides, which function as prebiotic substances. Several plant polysaccharide families are not readily available energy sources for humans as they are resistant to secreted digestive enzymes. These polysaccharides are grouped along with lignin to form one of the most recognizable nutraceutical families dietary fibers. The non-starch polysaccharides are further divided into homogeneous and heterogeneous polysaccha rides and soluble and insoluble substances.

(d) Fatty Acids and Structural Lipids: Fatty acids and/or their derivatives include the ω-3 PUFA found in higher amounts in plants, fish, and other marine animals and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) produced by bacteria in the ruminants.

(e) Amino Acid-Based: This group includes intact protein (i.e., soy protein), polypeptides, amino acids, and nitrogenous and sulfur amino acid derivatives. A few amino acids are also being investigated for their nutraceutical potential nowadays. These amino acids are arginine, ornithine, taurine, and aspartic acid. Arginine is cardioprotective since it is a precursor molecule for the vasodilating substance nitric oxide (NO). Also, arginine may reduce atherogenesis. The nonprotein amino acid taurine may also have blood pressure-lowering and antioxidant properties. Other examples are isothiocyanates, indole-3-carbinol, allyl sulfur compounds, and capsaicinoids. Another nutraceutical amino acid-derived molecule is folic acid, which is believed to be cardioprotective by minimizing homocysteine levels. Other members of this group would include tripeptide glutathione and choline.

(f) Microbes (Probiotics): Other groups of nutraceuticals include molecules or elements, whereas probiotics contain live bacteria. An excellent probiotic must be resistant to acid conditions of the stomach, bile, and digestive enzymes usually found in the human gastrointestinal tract, able to colonize the human intestine, be safe for human consumption; and have scientifically proven efficacy. Among the bacterial species recognized as having functional food potential are Lactobacillus acidophilus, L. plantarum, L. casei, Bifidobacterium bifidum, B. infantis , and Streptococcus salvarius subspecies thermophilus . Some yeasts have been noted as well, including Saccharomyces boulardii .

(g) Minerals: Several minerals have been recognized for their nutraceutical potential and thus have been included under functional foods. Among the most evident is calcium with relation to bone health, colon cancer, and perhaps hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Potassium has also been found to reduce hypertension and thus improve cardiovascular health. Some trace minerals have also been found to have nutraceutical potentials, such as copper, selenium, manganese, and zinc. All these trace minerals have antioxidant properties. Copper, zinc, and manganese are components of superoxide dismutase (SOD) enzymes, whereas selenium is a component of glutathione peroxidase. Indeed, more research is required on trace elements, given their metabolic relationships to other nutrients and the potential for toxicity.

Conclusion

Functional foods and nutraceuticals are classified according to source/origin, nutrient/non-nutrient, organ/organ system, modifications in foods, specific functional components, mechanism of action and chemical nature of food. According to source or origin, functional foods are classified as plants, animals, and microbial. According to nutrients, functional foods are classified as a nutrient, viz., lipids, Vitamins and minerals. According to organs, functional foods have been classified based on beneficial effects on the Gastrointestinal tract, Cardiovascular system, Kidney: Immune System and Skeletal system. According to modifications in foods these are classified as Fortified, Enriched, Enhanced, and Altered. According to the mechanism of action, these are classified as antioxidant, antibacterial, antihypertensive, antihypercholesterolemic, antiaggregate, anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic and osteoprotective. According to the chemical nature of foods, nutraceuticals have been classified as Isoprenoid derivatives, Phenolic substances, Fatty acids and structural lipids, Carbohydrates and derivatives, Amino acid-based substances, Microbes and Minerals.

References

1. Arai, S., Vattem, D., & Kumagai, H. (2016). Functional Foods-History and Concepts. In D. A. Vattam, & M. Vatsala, Functional Foods, Nutraceuticals and Natural Products, Concepts and Applications, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.: DEStech Publications Inc., 1-18.

2. Kerry, R. G., Patra, J. K., Gouda, S., Park, Y., Shin, H., & Das, G. (2018). Benefaction of Probiotics for Human Health: A Review. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis , 927939.

3. Wildman, R., & Kelley, M. (2007). Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods. In R.E.C. Wildman, Handbook on Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods (pp. 1-22). Taylor and Francis Group: CRC Press.

4. http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/33348/1/Unit-11.pdf accessed on 12 June 2018

5. https://youtu.be/gCeSLR5PFIc accessed on 2nd April 2019

Unit ‐ I Introduction to Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals

chapter ‐ 1.3

Perceived Effects of Diet on Disease Prevention

Dr Renuka Mainde

Counsellor, M.Sc. Dietetics and Food Service Management,

IGNOU Nagpur Regional Centre, Nagpur

Introduction

Exceptional alterations occur worldwide as fertility and mortality rates decline in most countries and population age. These changes affect individuals, families, governments, and private-sector organizations as they seek to answer questions related to health care, housing, social security, work and retirement, caregiving, and the burden of disease and disability.

The dramatic increase in average life expectancy during the 20th century ranks as one of society's greatest achievements, notes a report from the National Institute on Aging, a division of the National Institute of Health. It further reports that the 85-and-over population is projected to increase 351 per cent between 2010 and 2050, compared to a 188 per cent increase for the population aged 65 or older and a 22 per cent increase for the population under age 65.

This helped the countries grow and rise economically, which has brought a sudden transition in health and improvement in treatment modalities with the advancement of vaccines. The shift has focused on communicable diseases to lifestyle-related and non-communicable diseases. Availability of junk foods, a shift towards consumption of packed foods coupled with an unhealthy lifestyle has invited many diseases.

Today, industrialized countries are facing three significant challenges:

•To control the cost of health care.

•To offer their ageing population a real opportunity to live longer and better.

•To provide more and more busy consumers with a choice of healthy processed or ready-to-eat foods.

The disease trends in India have an advanced load from lifestyle-related diseases. Prevalence of coronary artery disease was found in approximately 1.7 million population by the end of 2016. The concerning issue is that it affects the most productive years of the people, i.e., middle age. Metabolic syndrome is a cluster of diseases which further adds to complications.

Diabetes dominance has increased by 64% across India over the quarter century, according to ICMR 2017. All metabolic disorders are interconnected. Lifestyle diseases share risk factors similar to prolonged exposure to three changeable lifestyle habits - smoking, unhealthy diet, and physical inactivity and result in the growth of chronic diseases, especially heart disease, stroke, diabetes, obesity, metabolic syndrome, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and some types of cancers.

These illnesses reflect the diseases of industrialized countries, the so-called disease of affluence; however, globally, they are known as non-communicable and chronic diseases, part of the degenerative diseases group. Chronic diseases can result in loss of independence, years of disability, or death and impose a considerable economic burden on health services.

Today, chronic diseases are a significant public health problem worldwide. World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that 61 per cent of all deaths - the global burden of disease - was attributable to chronic diseases. By 2030, the proportion of total global deaths due to chronic diseases is expected to increase to 70 per cent and the global burden of disease to 56 per cent. Several reasons are accountable for the development of areas of research in the nutrition sciences today:

•An emphasis on nutritional and medical research on associations between diet and dietary constituents and health benefits,

•A favourable regulatory environment,

•The consumer self-care phenomenon, and

•Rapid growth in the market for health and wellness products.

According to the Department of Health and Human Services, diet plays a role in 5 of 10 causes of death, including coronary heart disease (CHD), certain types of cancer, stroke, diabetes (noninsulin-dependent or type 2) and atherosclerosis. A collecting body of research now suggests that consumption of certain foods or their associated physiologically active components may be linked to disease risk reduction.

Food is one of the top strategies used to reduce the risk of chronic lifestyle-related diseases such as diabetes, dyslipidemia, hypertension, obesity etc., caused by insufficient metabolic modulation. The new inclination is to reconsider foods and their adequate intake as the first line of protection against these abnormal modalities.

In progressive societies, nutrition science is at a new frontier. It is developing from the concept of ‘adequate nutrition’ (for survival) to that of ‘optimal nutrition’ (for improving health). Hence, to reduce the cost of an economic burden on societies, scientists are struggling to develop strategies to prevent and control the development of non-communicable diseases. Functional foods, thus, provide the answer to some extent.

Functional foods offer great potential to improve health and, to some extent, help prevent certain diseases when taken as part of a balanced diet and healthy lifestyle. Functional foods are one of the fastest-growing segments of the food industry. Functional foods have already become part of the dietary landscape in some countries. Functional food constituents may enhance short-term well-being, but the benefits are generally related to the long-term mitigation of certain diseases. Functional foods perform through their bioactive compounds. Bioactive compounds are diverse types of chemicals present in small amounts in plants and animal sources (which include fruits, greens, nuts, oils, whole grains and fatty fish). These have been studied to prevent cancer, heart disease, and other diseases. Some bioactive compounds are lycopene, resveratrol, lignan, tannins, and indoles.

Functional Foods and Management of Diabetes

Type 2 diabetes is a metabolic disorder characterized by hyperglycemia, developing