Transatlantic Roots Music: Folk, Blues, and National Identities

By Jill Terry and Neil A. Wynn

This book presents a collection of essays on the debates about origins, authenticity, and identity in folk and blues music. The essays had their origins in an international conference on the Transatlantic routes of American roots music, out of which emerged common themes and questions of origins and authenticity in folk music, black and white, American and British. The central theme is musical influences, but issues of identity—national, local, and racial—are also recurring subjects. The extent to which these identities were invented, imagined, or constructed by the performers, or by those who recorded their work for posterity, is also a prominent concern and questions of racial identity are particularly central. The book features a new essay on the blues by Paul Oliver alongside an essay on Oliver's seminal blues scholarship. There are also several essays on British blues and the links between performers and styles in the United States and Britain and new essays on critical figures such as Alan Lomax and Woody Guthrie.

This volume uniquely offers perspectives from both sides of the Atlantic on the connections and interplay of influences in roots music and the debates about these subjects drawing on the work of eminent established scholars and emerging young academics who are already making a contribution to the field. Throughout, the contributors offer the most recent scholarship available on key issues.

• Language: English
• Publisher: University Press of Mississippi
• Release date: Jul 2, 2012
• ISBN: 9781496834935

Book preview

Transatlantic Roots Music

American Made Music Series

Advisory Board

David Evans, General Editor

Barry Jean Ancelet

Edward A. Berlin

Joyce J. Bolden

Rob Bowman

Susan C. Cook

Curtis Ellison

William Ferris

John Edward Hasse

Kip Lornell

Bill Malone

Eddie S. Meadows

Manuel H. Peña

David Sanjek

Wayne D. Shirley

Robert Walser

TRANSATLANTIC ROOTS MUSIC

Folk, Blues, and National Identities

Edited by Jill Terry and Neil A. Wynn

University Press of Mississippi / Jackson

www.upress.state.ms.us

The University Press of Mississippi is a member of the Association of American University Presses.

Copyright © 2012 by University Press of Mississippi

All rights reserved

Manufactured in the United States of America

First printing 2012

∞

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Transatlantic roots music : folk, blues, and national identities / edited by Jill Terry and Neil A. Wynn.

p. cm. — (American made music series)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-61703-288-2 (cloth : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-61703-289-9 (ebook) 1. Folk music—United States—History and criticism. 2. Folk music—Great Britain—History and criticism. 3. Blues (Music)—History and criticism. 4. Blues (Music)—Great Britain—History and criticism. I. Terry, Jill. II. Wynn, Neil A.

ML3545.T73 2012

781.62’13—dc232012000869

British Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data available

Contents

Acknowledgments

Introduction

—Jill Terry and Neil A. Wynn

1. The Historical and Social Background of Transatlantic Roots Music Revivals

—Jill Terry and Neil A. Wynn

2. Early Morning Blues: The Early Years of the Transatlantic Connection

—Paul Oliver

3. Dreaming Up the Blues: Transatlantic Blues Scholarship in the 1950s

—Christian O’Connell

4. American Balladry and the Anxiety of Ancestry

—Erich Nunn

5. Woody Guthrie at the Crossroads

—Will Kaufman

6. It’s Not British Music, It’s American Music: Bob Dylan and Britain

—John Hughes

7. Alan Lomax: An American Ballad Hunter in Great Britain

—Ronald D. Cohen

8. Putting the Blues in British Blues Rock

—Roberta Freund Schwartz

9. That White Man, Burdon: The Animals, Race, and the American South in the British Blues Boom

—Brian Ward

10. Born in Chicago: The Impact of the Paul Butterfield Blues Band on the British Blues Network, 1964–1970

—Andrew Kellett

11. When Somebody Take Your Number and Use It: The 1960s, British Blues, and America’s Racial Crossroads

—Robert H. Cataliotti

12. Groove Me: Dancing to the Discs of Northern Soul

—David Sanjek

13. Some Reflections on Celtic Music

—Duck Baker

Contributors

Index

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank all our contributors for their work—and their patience. We also appreciate the support and commitment to the project of Craig Gill at the University Press of Mississippi and input of our readers, Professor David Evans and an anonymous reviewer, both of whom offered valuable suggestions and corrections. In some cases the chapter author and we, as editors, took a different line in the interest of academic debate. Thanks are also due to Anne Stascavage and Will Rigby at the press for their outstanding editorial work.

We have both been influenced and encouraged by other people who have played a part in roots music. Jill particularly thanks Mitch (Gerald) Mitchell, who for forty years has been an inspiration, friend, guide, singer, dancer, oral historian, and collector of folk, blues, and jazz and who was there, in the London clubs, when the roots scene really blossomed—lucky him! Paul Oliver not only took part in the conference from which these papers sprang, but also offered the chapter included here; his influence can be seen in many of the chapters in the book, but the fact that his work is itself the subject of one speaks volumes for his importance.

—Jill Terry

University of Worcester

—Neil Wynn

University of Gloucestershire

Introduction

—Jill Terry and Neil A. Wynn

This collection of articles originally began as a series of conference papers on the subject of The Transatlantic Routes of Roots Music held at the University of Worcester, England, in September 2009. The event brought together prominent authorities on British and American roots music from both sides of the Atlantic, who collectively engaged in discussion of this phenomenon as it appeared in folk and blues music emanating from Europe and the USA. Its aim, and the aim of this volume, was (and is) to consider exchanges and dialogues about folk music, often referred to now in the expanded term as roots music—that is, the (originally) unwritten traditional music of ordinary people. As knowledge of the music and culture of the non-English-speaking, nonwhite, non-European, and non-American world grew, folk music broadened into world and then roots music.¹ Recognizing the plurality of musical strands even within the European/North American world, the collection explores not just the interconnectedness of folk/roots music on either side of the Atlantic, but also issues of discovery, rediscovery, and representation of such musical forms.

While many of the papers focused on African American music, particularly the blues and its influence on white popular transatlantic culture in the 1960s, the conference also included papers on white American and British folk music. One of the aims of the conference was to bring these two aspects of roots music together—as indeed they generally were historically—both in revivals and in everyday performance. Many performers, ranging from the Mississippi Sheiks through to Sonny Terry, Leadbelly, Big Bill Broonzy, and Josh White, sang blues and folk songs, and played and recorded with people such as Woody Guthrie and Pete Seeger. While our predominant theme is how music crossed from one side of the Atlantic to the other, and with what effect, one of the central concerns that comes out of these discussions is the relationship between different folk music forms or genres and questions of identity: individual, national, regional, racial, and social. What emerges from these questions is thus an examination of the quest for authenticity which has led collectors of folk and blues, as well as those engaged in performance, marketing, and consumption of the music, to assert a claim of pure lineage. The essays collected here demonstrate the vital significance that regional, national, and racial identifications have had in twentieth-century reproductions of roots music and for the performers’ and audiences’ own authentication of roots.

Not surprisingly, our contributors focus mainly on the postwar years, when first jazz and then folk and blues music gained in popularity on both sides of the Atlantic. This was a period when there was a growing interest in African American culture in Europe, particularly Britain; this interest was then exported back to the USA. However, the volume addresses issues of origin in folk music raised by the first collectors, Child, Sharp, the Lomaxes, and many others, which continued not just about black song, but also about all folk music. How folk music was perceived by those who recorded it for posterity as well as by those who performed it continues to be a matter of interest and debate. Several new publications touch on such matters either directly or indirectly. New or forthcoming biographies of Alan Lomax, Pete Seeger, and Woody Guthrie reveal continuing interest in folk music and the discussion surrounding it.² Broader matters are dealt with in many others, such as Ronald Cohen’s Rainbow Quest: The Folk Music Revival & American Society, 1940–1970; Benjamin Filene’s Romancing the Folk: Public Memory and American Roots Music; Karl Hagstrom Miller’s Segregating Sound: Inventing Folk and Pop Music in the Age of Jim Crow; and William Roy’s Red, White and Blues: Social Movements, Folk Music and Race in the United States.³ Picking up on the recurring question of identity, Roy talks of folk music in Europe being associated with nationalist sentiment while American folk music, according to Alan Lomax (the most influential definer of what American folk music is), ‘mirrors the unique life of this western continent’ and ‘a culture of the common man.’ However, as Roy reminds us, the very concept of folk music is socially constructed:⁴ who the folk were, what they sang, and what it meant was the subject of outside interpreters, the American and British collectors and recorders from Francis James Child and Cecil Sharp through to the Lomaxes, John and Alan, and Paul Oliver, all names that, with others, figure in almost all of the essays included here. The performance of traditional music, the appropriation of form and lyrics, as well as the adoption of authentic personas have been critical factors in debates about authenticity that reverberated throughout the folk revivals led by its performers such as Ewan MacColl, Pete Seeger, Martin Carthy, Woody Guthrie, and Bob Dylan, all of whom make frequent appearances throughout this book. The essays in this collection thus allow us to understand the continuing emphasis on authenticity on both sides of the Atlantic.

Child, Sharp, the Lomaxes, and Oliver compiled and collected both blues and folk, sometimes both from a single singer, and the approach to music taken in this volume emphasizes the connection between folk and blues traditions because their genealogies have much in common, as do the debates on authenticity that surround them. The transatlantic connections within and between these British and American roots musics have been intrinsic to their collection, performance, and reception from the earliest recorded oral histories through to circulation and reproduction in folk clubs, on vinyl, in radio broadcasts, and into the digital age. The most recent revival in roots music popularity, showcased in the 2001 PBS documentary American Roots Music and the BBC’s Late Junction series, is also manifested in the enormous expansion of the folk, blues, and world music festival scenes in the twenty-first century, from Britain’s Womad to the Chicago Blues Festival. If the first folk revival occurred at the end of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (1890s-1920s), the second in mid-twentieth century (1945–1960s), then it could be said that we are in the era of the Third Revival."

Chapter 1, by Terry and Wynn, offers an overview of some of the major debates and issues about folk/roots music, and its meaning and place as a genre, identified by the collectors and authorities who both preserved the historical musical record and at the same time posed the questions of meaning and authenticity that were to become a major feature of revivals of both folk and blues music in later years. That such questions were important can be seen in the disappearance (from academic memory and discourse at least) of African American performers such as Florence Mills who were enormously popular in the 1930s and 1940s and yet did not easily fit the descriptions of blues or jazz performers. The authors also address the causes of folk/blues revivals and attempt to place them historically before returning again to the fundamental question of definition and meaning.

In Early Morning Blues a leading world authority, Paul Oliver, provides a broad historical overview of the development and transatlantic movement of African American roots music from minstrelsy through to the blues. Some of those musical forms were evident in the plantation reviews discussed in chapter 1, but others were linked to the growth of jazz and blues, which soon developed a small but devoted following and a growing body of journals and scholarship that provided an intellectual basis for the blues revival of the 1960s in Britain. The impact and meaning of this writing, particularly that of Oliver himself, is explored by Christian O’Connell in his chapter, Dreaming Up the Blues: Transatlantic Blues Scholarship in the 1950s. For O’Connell and for other writers in Britain and elsewhere, those who write about a musical form often become the arbiters of what is or is not authentic, perhaps ignoring what is, or is not, popular. Thus it is the recorder/historian who determines what blues or folk music is rather than the musicians or folk themselves.

The musical origins of particular folk songs and the manner of their interpretation by scholars, recorders, and performers is taken further by Erich Nunn in his discussion of the work of one of the most famous authorities on American folk music, black and white, John Lomax, and in the particular case study of Bradley Kincaid’s telling and retelling of the acquisition of a hound dog guitar. Nunn looks at cowboy and mountain songs and their reading by first Lomax and then Kincaid in terms of an Anglo-Saxon ancestry that demonstrates the manner in which investments in racial difference structure the way folk music is understood as it is formed and re-formed across the Atlantic at different times.

Will Kaufman’s chapter on Woody Guthrie explores the different meanings and interpretations of one of the most influential American folk singers of the 1930s and 1940s. Kaufman implicitly addresses the issue of what folk music means and looks particularly at the notion that Guthrie’s music was proletarian, reflecting the views of the Okies, Arkies, and trade unionists, or whether it was shaped instead more by middle-class, urban audiences. This chapter also looks at the issue raised in chapter 1 of the relationship between folk and popular music and the extent to which recorded, as opposed to performed, music also led to different meanings. Addressing the examination of origins and influences, Kaufman sees Guthrie standing at the intersection of many crossroads analyzed in this volume.

While in many ways an archetypal American folk musician, Guthrie’s song lyrics have provided much of the material that was developed in 1960s revivals that drew on both sides of the Atlantic for inspiration, not least by Bob Dylan. Dylan’s songwriting craft is examined in John Hughes’s chapter, which traces the complex influence and genealogies of Dylan’s compositions throughout the 1960s as he crossed the Atlantic in person. Hughes documents the inspiration of Child Ballads and other British folk song on Dylan’s writing and then considers Dylan’s eventual return in 1965 to the American tradition, as redrawn by Guthrie, as he adopted an American provenance. At the same time, Hughes locates Dylan in a literary and poetic tradition.

In his chapter on Alan Lomax, Ronald Cohen provides crucial biographical detail of Lomax’s time in Great Britain during the 1950s. Substantially sourced from his own research in Lomax’s letters, Cohen’s examples enable us to appreciate the impact that Lomax had on the circulation of American folk, blues, and jazz through his BBC broadcasts from London. Lomax not only continued the tradition of recording indigenous folk songs of Ireland and Scotland while in Britain but was also instrumental in facilitating the performances of American singers such as Big Bill Broonzy in appearances alongside traditional British singers in both public and radio performances. Cohen documents the significance of these transatlantic music exchanges, including the African American source material that would be so significant to developments in popular music.

This theme is taken up in chapter 8 by Roberta Freund Schwartz, who examines the fusion of blues and rock in the 1960s heyday of what has variously been termed blues rock, British blues, or R&B. Describing the ways in which bands such as the Rolling Stones, the Yardbirds, and the Animals adopted style and lyrics from the recorded music of Chicago blues performances such as Broonzy and others, Schwartz demonstrates the revolutionary impact of the fusions that were the result of the British exposure to American blues.

The specific example of the Animals, examined by Brian Ward in chapter 9, demonstrates the processes at work for one band in the context that Schwartz describes. The Animals rose to fame in the 1960s, and their success, Ward argues, reflected the 1960s enthusiasm for African American–derived sounds. By tracing the provenance of the Animals’ rendition of The House of the Rising Sun through its complex genealogy, Ward describes the following fetishization of blues authenticity. This essay illuminates controversies about white popular musics’ appropriation of Civil Rights era radicalism as well as tendencies toward the stereotyping of black Americans that arose in part due to the recording industry’s impact on British popular culture.

Andrew Kellett examines the response of the Chicago blues band led by Paul Butterfield to the British blues invasion and their appearance of greater musical authenticity than that of the British invaders. He argues that in the course of this rivalry British musicians stopped trying so hard to sound American (to say nothing of black) and that, as a result, blues rock music truly became a transatlantic dialogue. By examining the mutually constitutive relationship between Butterfield’s band and the British bluesmen, Kellett addresses core issues such as authenticity, creativity, and identity construction and seeks to explain the roles they played in this extraordinary cultural call-and-response. Similar issues are explored in chapter 11 by Robert Cataliotti’s broader discussion of the contribution of British blues to the construction of a racial nexus between black and white Americans during the 1960s. Taking the careers of B.B. King and Eric Clapton as a starting point, he looks at the impact of the music produced by such British artists as Clapton, the Rolling Stones, John Mayall, Fleetwood Mac, and Van Morrison, along with the research of scholars like Paul Oliver, on the consciousness of American artists and audiences.

While Ward, Kellett, and Cataliotti all describe mainstream developments of black musical influence, a different version of African American music’s impact on British culture comes from David Sanjek’s examination of Northern Soul in chapter 12. Focusing on a specific geographic region, and a particular moment in time, the 1970s, Sanjek examines the ways in which the actual audience gathered around identification with U.S. soul music, and asks why this music became the focus of this particular imagined community.

All of the above essays deal with the collection, reproduction, performance, and reception of transatlantic roots music. For the final word we invited a musician to give his own take on an aspect of the transatlantic. Duck Baker, an American living in Britain who plays both U.S. and British roots music and fusions of the two, adds his reflections on Celtic music and, in so doing, joins our other writers in debating the central issue of authenticity. Baker’s piece is a salutary reminder that this issue is bound up with an honest desire on the part of roots musicians to value and nurture tradition from whenever and wherever that tradition comes. That is, after all, how and why the music survives.

Notes

1. Thus American roots music includes traditional white folk music, African American blues, and the music of Native Americans, Mexican Americans, Cajuns, and others. See American Roots Music at www.pbs.org./americanrootsmusci/pbs_arm_itc_historical_background.html (accessed 15/07/2011). More broadly the term roots music as commonly used, incorporates all of folk music, as well as its popularized forms (e.g., commercial blues) and popular forms that draw on folk and world music (e.g., rockabilly, reggae).

2. See for example Ron Cohen’s edited collection, Alan Lomax, Assistant in Charge: The Library of Congress Letters, 1935–1945 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2011); John Szwed, Alan Lomax: The Man Who Recorded the World (New York: Viking, 2010) [in the UK as The Man Who Recorded the World: A Biography of Alan Lomax (London: William Heinemann, 2010)]; Alan Winkler, "To Everything There is a Season": Pete Seeger and the Power of Song (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999); Alec Wilkinson, The Protest Singer: An Intimate Portrait of Pete Seeger (New York: Vintage, 2010); and Will Kaufman, Woody Guthrie American Radical (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2011). Bob Riesman’s I Feel Good: The Life and Times of Big Bill Broonzy (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2011) provides a perfect example of a singer who blurred the distinctions between blues and folk. On the British side, Electric Eden: Unearthing Britain’s Visionary Music by Rob Young (London: Faber & Faber, 2010) is the most related recent work.

3. Ronald Cohen, Rainbow Quest: The Folk Music Revival and American Society, 1940–1970 (Amherst and Boston: University of Massachusetts Press, 2002); Benjamin Filene, Romancing the Folk: Public Memory and American Roots Music (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 2010); Karl Hagstrom Miller, Segregating Sound: Inventing Folk and Pop Music in the Age of Jim Crow (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2010), William G. Roy, Red, White and Blues: Social Movements, Folk Music and Race in the United States, (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2010).

4. Roy, Red, White and Blues, 2–3.

Transatlantic Roots Music

1

The Historical and Social Background of Transatlantic Roots Music Revivals

—Jill Terry and Neil A. Wynn

I guess all songs is folk songs. I never heard no horse sing ’em.

—Big Bill Broonzy, Folk singing, Time, 23 November 1962.¹

The distinction between folk music and popular music is often blurred. Indeed, from the 1940s on folk songs often made the charts and could therefore be classed as popular; and as the broadcasting and recording industries grew, this became ever more the case. However, roots music (sometimes also world music to include non–English language music), is the focus of this volume, which demonstrates the growing appreciation of a transatlantic world and the interconnectedness of folk forms that resulted from the cultural transfer between Europe, Africa, and the Americas. The flow of people from Britain, Ireland, Europe, Mexico, and Africa into the United States of America helped shape American folk music, that is, the music performed (at least originally) by ordinary people (rather than professional musicians) reflecting upon their everyday life and work as well as their hopes, traditional tales, and romances. Often based on songs and melodies from the Old World, their original authors mostly unknown, this new music emerged among the rural workers, farmers, and miners of the East Coast and Appalachia, the plantations (and prisons) of the South, black urban communities, the cowboys and ranchers of the plains, lumberjacks in the far West and Northeast, itinerant workers and hoboes, and industrial laborers of northern cities in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. As Marty Stuart remarks in the PBS television series American Roots Music, the diversity of roots music—including as it does everything from Scottish, Irish, and English ballads, to fiddle music, sea shanties and songs, hillbilly and cowboy songs, country and western, and blues—represents more of a root system than a unified whole. Not all of this system can be represented in this book. By way of introduction here, we want to present some of the key debates about roots/folk music, provide an overall chronology of the development of folk music on both sides of the Atlantic, and offer a case study of some individuals who were not always recognized as folk singers and indeed have often been lost to history despite their popularity in both the United States and Britain, and whose repertoire often fell between folk and popular.

Frequently associated with a lost pre-industrial world and known variously as folk, country, cowboy, labor, or blues, American folk music was subsequently discovered and rediscovered on both sides of the Atlantic in successive folk revivals through the twentieth century. However, the revivals often prompted discussion and debate about the origins and authenticity of the songs and their connection with similar musical forms in the Old World, and the interest in folk music became a transatlantic phenomenon as scholars and musicians investigated and adopted not just their own traditional music, but also that of their distant relatives across the ocean.

The commercialization of the music industry and incorporation of folk music into broader pop music led to the spread of folk beyond its original geographical confines, increasingly blurring national and regional distinctions; and as music crossed back and forth across the Atlantic, the questions of authenticity, origin, and authorship became ever more complex. As Benjamin Filene points out, the notion held by early folklorists … of an unselfconscious, unmediated, and wholly un-commercial mode of music expression strikes me as fundamentally flawed: almost all musicians, after all, are influenced by others and make use of their talent in social settings. Given the explosion of mass media, rigid definitions of folk music become especially illusory when applied to the twentieth century.² Contemporary critics such as Elijah Wald and Karl Hagstrom Miller (echoing earlier scholars such as Alan Lomax, D. K. Wilgus, and Archie Green) have pointed out that distinctions between folk and popular music are often artificial, imposed by intellectuals rather than the people who perform the music. Miller quotes Johnny Shines, a friend of the famous bluesman Robert Johnson who, Shines insisted, would play ANYTHING that he heard … popular songs, ballads, blues, anything.³ Wald points out further that Johnson’s fame is based more on the work of later white writers and performers than the response of audiences at the time who were limited in number precisely because Johnson made so few records and never had a big hit.⁴ However, as Filene argues, the harder it is to locate and define cultures, the more value is placed on musical authenticity to create an idea of roots.⁵

On both sides of the Atlantic one vital element in the routes that this music has taken is race. While color has been harnessed as the authenticating factor in the performance and marketing of folk and blues, we are also reminded of the role of music in race relations, especially in the South, as well as the influence that black performers have had on white musical styles in both folk and popular music whether in the United States or Europe. In examining the transatlantic routes of American roots music, we therefore are confronted by the importance of race in musical cultures and in claims for authenticity. A contentious example is that of Leadbelly, who was presented by John Lomax as the epitome of the primitive Negro—while Lomax himself, in his autobiography Adventures of a Ballad Hunter, described himself as belonging to a family of po’ white trash. Neither characterization was accurate. But in his aim to find unsullied, authentic black music Lomax visited most of the Southern penitentiaries in the 1930s to feel carried across to Africa … as if I were listening to the tom-toms of savage blacks in his quest for the idiom of the Negro common people.⁶

Early Folk Revival Collectors

The practice of compiling, collecting and recording traditional vernacular songs was a transatlantic affair. Although it began in Britain early in the eighteenth century and continued through into the nineteenth with Walter Scott’s collection, Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border (1802–3), it was an American, Francis James Child, professor of medieval studies and English literature at Harvard College, who published the first major compilation of British folk song: The English and Scottish Popular Ballads (1882–98), originally in ten (later five) volumes of ballad lyrics that were believed to predate the printing press or existed outside of the printed medium. His work often formed a point of reference of British songs for later collectors seeking the origins of folk music in the United States. With another Harvard professor, William Wells Newell, Child also helped to establish the American Folklore Society in 1888. Ironically, while this American popularized British folksong, it was an English folklorist, Cecil Sharp (1859–1924), founder of the English Folk Dance Society—forerunner of the English Folk Dance and Song Society (EFDSS)—who, influenced by the work already undertaken by Olive Dame Campbell of North Carolina, became the equivalent of Child in the USA. In 1916, assisted by Maud Karpeles, Sharp discovered British folk music in the Appalachians. The result was the publication of English Folk Songs of the Southern Appalachians in 1917, a work that includes forty Child ballads.⁷ Cecil Sharp was purely interested in collecting song and dance in England and in the southern United States from the source; he advocated folksongs as racial products and took the view that the only musical source of cultural improvement was pure folksong.⁸ Sharp’s expedition in 1916 to the Appalachian Mountains supported his thesis that Appalachian musical culture clearly demonstrated its antecedents in English, Irish, and Scottish folksong.

While Sharp and others were searching for surviving British ballads in the South, John Lomax, a Texan, collected black and white material, cowboy (including black and Mexican cowboys), blues, Cajun, Mexican American, hillbilly, and prison songs, as well as spirituals. He published Cowboy Songs and Other Frontier Ballads in 1910. The continued growth in interest in American folk music after World War I was reflected in a growing number of folk festivals in the 1920s and the creation of the Library of Congress Archive of American Folk Song in 1928. In 1933 Lomax became the curator of the Library of Congress collection; that same year he and his son Alan Lomax began the first of several field trips to the southern states collecting material that appeared as American Ballads and Folk Songs in 1934. Alan Lomax was to become exceptionally prolific in published and recorded output of his collections of roots music throughout the United States, Europe, and beyond, and was a major influence in reviving interest in folk music on both sides of the Atlantic.

Cecil Sharp and John Lomax’s searches for authentic folk music in the Appalachians were governed by their own specific prescriptions to seek out examples of pure Scottish and English folk ballads, in the process masking the fact that the intermixing of national and racial traditions had been continuous. Their folk music needed to be uninfluenced by the commercial mass media. To this end, John Lomax deliberately sought out the most isolated black men he could find in the penitentiaries in the South, while Sharp located the most isolated white singers in the Appalachians. The segregation of roots music into black or white, blues or folk was recognized by collectors, although some, such as the writer Carl Sandburg, were vaguer as to origins. While his American Songbag (1927) was clearly intended as a celebration of Americana, Sandburg confessed that the origins of songs could be complex: the very first in his collection, He’s Gone Away, was, he wrote "of British origin marked with mountaineers and southern negro [sic] influences."⁹

Second Generation Folk Revival Musicians

Like Cecil Sharp, Alan Lomax also made frequent Atlantic crossings. He had an idea of folk music that it need not be specific to a group but could be shared by a nation. As Benjamin Filene has argued in Romancing the Folk, "most Americans would have been surprised to hear that America had any folk music…. Rural musicians had had no reason yet to think of themselves as ‘the folk’ or of their music as ‘folk’ music."¹⁰ Lomax’s work resulted in the first great published collections of American folksong and made it clear that the repertoire of songs and dance tunes from Britain to be found on both sides of the Atlantic was prolific, diverse, and very rich. The young Pete Seeger was his assistant in compiling a Checklist of Recorded Songs in the English Language in the Archive of American Folk Song to July, 1940 and Seeger also compiled American Folk Song and Folk-lore: A Regional Bibliography.¹¹ Alan Lomax’s work as folk collector/ethnographer offers an important window on transatlantic folk exchanges. One significant example was his 1959 trip to the Deep South accompanied by English folk singer Shirley Collins. He sought out singers and musicians from both sides of the color line, recording everything from black chain gangs to white shape-note singers, and this previously unrecorded music is meticulously preserved and available among the vast collections in the Library of Congress Lomax Archives.¹² While Cecil Sharp thought of folk music in terms of its survival from the past and recorded it by transcribing it in written form, Lomax made audio recordings and was interested in the music as a living force. Both these methods continued to some extent later in the twentieth century in the work of people like Paul Oliver and Samuel Charters who transcribed songs from recordings.

The transatlantic crossings of these and earlier collectors were continued through radio broadcasters such as Alistair Cooke, who immigrated to the United States in the 1930s and produced a series of radio programs for the BBC. For I Hear America Singing (1938) Cooke used field recordings from the Lomax collection. Lomax meanwhile traveled to London in the 1950s to escape the repressive climate of Cold War America and achieved extensive exposure for both American and British folk and blues recordings in several series of BBC radio and TV programs, creating the first television series in the UK, Song Hunter, in which source singers and traditional folk songs had significant exposure. In an obituary following Alan Lomax’s death in 2002, David Gregory writes that Lomax’s production of Negro Sinful Songs performed by Leadbelly was the first commercial album of African American folk songs and was followed by release of The Midnight Special: Songs of Texas Prisons and Woody Guthrie’s Dustbowl Ballads.¹³

Karl Hagstrom Miller argues that folklorists helped to naturalize segregation by insisting that important aspects of African American or white folk culture were those that showed no sign of cultural miscegenation, thus forming the basis of the musical color line. The recording industry’s desire to produce race and hillbilly records reinforced this segregation through their selection of performers and songs. Indeed, to meet Ralph Peer’s requirements performers employed racialized sounds, deliberately affecting the popular black blues sound or the white hillbilly sound regardless of their own race.¹⁴ Talented hillbilly mountaineers have capitalized on this since the 1920s recordings by Ralph Peer that eventually led to an explosion of performers heading to Nashville, the celebrated home of white country music; once identified as the true white roots of America, this music did not return to or acknowledge its British or its black roots.

The availability of source material in print and on record facilitated the folk revivals on both sides of the Atlantic, motivated by what Robert Cantwell describes as a nostalgic generational longing for a sense of connection with an enduring past and a rooted sense of belonging in an imagined community.¹⁵ The revivals established strict criteria