Solid State Transformer: Revolutionizing the power grid for power quality and energy efficiency

By Fouad Sabry

What Is Solid State Transformer

In actuality, an AC-to-AC converter, also known as a solid-state transformer (SST), power electronic transformer (PET), or electronic power transformer, is a type of electric power converter that replaces a conventional transformer in AC electric power distribution. This type of electric power converter is known as an AC-to-AC converter. Because it works at a higher frequency, this kind of transformer is more complicated than a traditional transformer that uses the utility frequency, but it also has the potential to be more space-efficient and smaller than a traditional transformer. The two primary varieties are referred to as "real" AC-to-AC converters and AC-to-DC-to-DC-to-AC converters, respectively. The AC-to-AC converter or DC-to-DC converter that is often found inside of a solid-state transformer is really a transformer. This transformer is what provides the electrical isolation and carries the entire power. This transformer is more compact because the DC-DC inverting stages that occur between the transformer coils are on the smaller side. As a result, the transformer coils that are needed to step up or step down voltages are also on the smaller side. Active regulation of voltage and current may be performed via a solid-state transformer. There are several that are able to convert electricity from single-phase to three-phase and vice versa. The amount of conversions that need to take place may be decreased by having variations that can either input or output DC power. This results in increased end-to-end efficiency. A Modular Solid-state transformer is similar to a Multi-level converter in that it is made up of numerous high-frequency transformers and has the same function. Because it is an intricate electrical circuit, it has to be constructed such that it can survive surges of various kinds, such as lightning. The solid-state transformer is a relatively new kind of transformer.

How You Will Benefit

(I) Insights, and validations about the following topics:

Chapter 1: Solid-state transformer

Chapter 2: Power factor

Chapter 3: Rectifier

Chapter 4: Power supply

Chapter 5: Power inverter

Chapter 6: Switched-mode power supply

Chapter 7: DC-to-DC converter

Chapter 8: Voltage regulator

Chapter 9: Power electronics

Chapter 10: Motor?generator

Chapter 11: Rotary converter

Chapter 12: HVDC converter station

Chapter 13: Variable-frequency drive

Chapter 14: Index of electrical engineering articles

Chapter 15: H-bridge

Chapter 16: Phase converter

Chapter 17: Voltage converter

Chapter 18: Induction heater

Chapter 19: Transformer types

Chapter 20: Electric machine

Chapter 21: Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering

(II) Answering the public top questions about solid state transformer.

(III) Real world examples for the usage of solid state transformer in many fields.

(IV) 17 appendices to explain, briefly, 266 emerging technologies in each industry to have 360-degree full understanding of solid state transformer' technologies.

Who This Book Is For

Professionals, undergraduate and graduate students, enthusiasts, hobbyists, and those who want to go beyond basic knowledge or information for any kind of solid state transformer.

• Language: English
• Publisher: One Billion Knowledgeable
• Release date: Aug 31, 2022

Book preview

Other books by the author

1 - Plasma Propulsion

2 - Pulse Detonation Engine

3 - Agricultural Robotics

4 - Closed Ecological Systems

5 - Cultured Meat

6 - Vertical Farming

7 - Autonomous Vehicles

8 - Autonomous Drones

9 - Autonomous Robotics

10 - Autonomous Weapons

11 - Arcology

12 - 4D Printing

13 - Domed City

14 - Biometrics

15 - Digital Scent Technology

16 - Electronic Nose

17 - E-Textiles

18 - Flexible Electronics

19 - Memristor

20 - Molecular Electronics

21 - Nanoelectromechanical Systems

22 - Solid State Transformer

23 - Spintronics

24 - Thermal Copper Pillar Bump

25 - Three Dimensional Integrated Circuit

26 - Twistronics

27 - Airborne Wind Turbine

28 - Americium

29 - Artificial Photosynthesis

30 - Concentrated Solar Power

31 - Cryogenic Treatment

32 - Supercapacitor

33 - Energy Harvesting

34 - Flywheel Energy Storage

35 - Fusion Power

36 - Generation IV Reactor

37 - Gravity Battery

38 - Home Fuel Cell

39 - Lithium Air Battery

40 - Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery

41 - Lithium Sulfur Battery

42 - Magnesium Battery

43 - Magnonics

44 - Molten Salt Reactor

45 - Nanowire Battery

46 - Optical Rectenna

47 - Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

48 - Solid State Battery

49 - Smart Grid

50 - Space Based Solar Power

51 - Thorium Fuel Cycle

52 - Vortex Engine

53 - Wireless Power Transfer

54 - Zero Energy Building

55 - Computer Generated Imagery

56 - Immersion Into Virtual Reality

57 - Distributed Ledger

58 - Digital Currency

59 - Decentralized Finance

60 - 6G Network

61 - Ambient Intelligence

62 - Artificial Brain

63 - Artificial General Intelligence

64 - Augmented Reality

65 - Carbon Nanotube Field Effect Transistor

66 - Civic Technology

67 - DNA Digital Data Storage

68 - Exascale Computing

69 - Holographic Data Storage

70 - General Purpose Computing On Graphics Processing Units

71 - Exocortex

72 - Li-Fi

73 - Machine Vision

74 - Mobile Collaboration

75 - Multimodal Contactless Biometric Systems

76 - Nanoradio

77 - Neuromorphic Engineering

78 - Optical Computing

79 - Quantum Computing

80 - Quantum Cryptography

81 - Quantum Radar

82 - Radio Frequency Identification

83 - Semantic Web

84 - Software Defined Radio

85 - Speech Recognition

86 - Subvocal Recognition

87 - Virtual Reality

88 - Digital Forensics

89 - Smart Machines

90 - Aerogel

91 - Amorphous Metal

92 - Bioplastic

93 - Conductive Polymer

94 - Cryogenic Treatment

95 - Dynamic Armour

96 - Fullerene

97 - Graphene

98 - Lab on a Chip

99 - High Temperature Superconductivity

100 - Magnetic Nanoparticles

101 - Magnetorheological Fluid

102 - Microfluidics

103 - Superfluidity

104 - Metamaterial

105 - Metal Foam

106 - Multi Function Structure

107 - Nanomaterials

108 - Programmable Matter

109 - Quantum Dot

110 - Silicene

111 - Superalloy

112 - Synthetic Diamond

113 - Time Crystal

114 - Translucent Concrete

115 - Artificial Womb

116 - Brain Implant

117 - Cryonics

118 - De-Extinction

119 - DNA Vaccine

120 - MRNA Vaccine

121 - Enzybiotics

122 - Genetic Engineering

123 - Suspended Animation

124 - Life Extension

125 - Strategies For Engineered Negligible Senescence

126 - Nanomedicine

127 - Nanosensor

128 - Omni Processor

129 - Oncolytic Virus

130 - Personalized Medicine

131 - Whole Genome Sequencing

132 - Phage Therapy

133 - Plantibody

134 - Regenerative Medicine

135 - Robot Assisted Surgery

136 - Senolytic

137 - Stem Cell Therapy

138 - Synthetic Biology

139 - Synthetic Genomics

140 - Tissue Engineering

141 - Tricorder

142 - Virotherapy

143 - Vitrification

144 - Cryoprotectant

145 - Caseless Ammunition

146 - Cloaking Device

147 - Directed Energy Weapon

148 - Electrolaser

149 - Electromagnetic Weapons

150 - Electrothermal Chemical Technology

151 - Energy Shield

152 - Green Bullet

153 - Cruise Missile

154 - Laser Weapon

155 - MAHEM

156 - Precision Guided Firearm

157 - Sonic Weapon

158 - Stealth Technology

159 - Telescoped Ammunition

160 - Lightweight Small Arms Technologies

161 - Brain Computer Interface

162 - Brain Reading

163 - Neuroinformatics

164 - Electroencephalography

165 - Head Transplant

166 - Neuroprosthetics

167 - Volumetric Display

168 - Laser TV

169 - Holography

170 - Optical Transistor

171 - Screenless Video

172 - Swarm Intelligence

173 - Android

174 - Gynoid

175 - Gastrobot

176 - Molecular Nanotechnology

177 - Nanorobotics

178 - Powered Exoskeleton

179 - Self Reconfiguring Modular Robot

180 - Swarm Robotics

181 - Uncrewed Vehicle

182 - Artificial Gravity

183 - Asteroid Mining

184 - Breakthrough Starshot

185 - Inflatable Space Habitat

186 - Reusable Launch System

187 - Airless Tire

188 - Autonomous Rail Rapid Transit

189 - Ion Propelled Aircraft

190 - Boeing X53 Active Aeroelastic Wing

191 - Adaptive Compliant Wing

192 - Fluidic Flight Controls

193 - Flying Car

194 - Fusion Rocket

195 - Ground Level Power Supply

196 - Hoverbike

197 - Hovertrain

198 - Ground Effect Train

199 - Atmospheric Satellite

200 - Jet Pack

201 - Backpack Helicopter

202 - Maglev

203 - Vactrain

204 - Magnetic Levitation

205 - Mass Driver

206 - Personal Rapid Transit

207 - Physical Internet

208 - Scooter Sharing System

209 - Propellant Depot

210 - Self Driving Car

211 - Space Elevator

212 - Spaceplane

213 - Vehicular Communication Systems

Series by the author

Emerging Technologies in Aerospace

1 - Plasma Propulsion

2 - Pulse Detonation Engine

Emerging Technologies in Agriculture

1 - Agricultural Robotics

2 - Closed Ecological Systems

3 - Cultured Meat

4 - Vertical Farming

Emerging Technologies in Autonomous Things

1 - Autonomous Vehicles

2 - Autonomous Drones

3 - Autonomous Robotics

4 - Autonomous Weapons

Emerging Technologies in Construction

1 - Arcology

2 - 4D Printing

3 - Domed City

Emerging Technologies in Electronics

1 - Biometrics

2 - Digital Scent Technology

3 - Electronic Nose

4 - E-Textiles

5 - Flexible Electronics

6 - Memristor

7 - Molecular Electronics

8 - Nanoelectromechanical Systems

9 - Solid State Transformer

10 - Spintronics

11 - Thermal Copper Pillar Bump

12 - Three Dimensional Integrated Circuit

13 - Twistronics

Emerging Technologies in Energy

1 - Airborne Wind Turbine

2 - Americium

3 - Artificial Photosynthesis

4 - Concentrated Solar Power

5 - Cryogenic Treatment

6 - Supercapacitor

7 - Energy Harvesting

8 - Flywheel Energy Storage

9 - Fusion Power

10 - Generation IV Reactor

11 - Gravity Battery

12 - Home Fuel Cell

13 - Lithium Air Battery

14 - Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery

15 - Lithium Sulfur Battery

16 - Magnesium Battery

17 - Magnonics

18 - Molten Salt Reactor

19 - Nanowire Battery

20 - Optical Rectenna

21 - Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

22 - Solid State Battery

23 - Smart Grid

24 - Space Based Solar Power

25 - Thorium Fuel Cycle

26 - Vortex Engine

27 - Wireless Power Transfer

28 - Zero Energy Building

Emerging Technologies in Entertainment

1 - Computer Generated Imagery

2 - Immersion Into Virtual Reality

Emerging Technologies in Finance

1 - Distributed Ledger

2 - Digital Currency

3 - Decentralized Finance

Emerging Technologies in Information and Communications Technology

1 - 6G Network

2 - Ambient Intelligence

3 - Artificial Brain

4 - Artificial General Intelligence

5 - Augmented Reality

6 - Carbon Nanotube Field Effect Transistor

7 - Civic Technology

8 - DNA Digital Data Storage

9 - Exascale Computing

10 - Holographic Data Storage

11 - General Purpose Computing On Graphics Processing Units

12 - Exocortex

13 - Li-Fi

14 - Machine Vision

15 - Mobile Collaboration

16 - Multimodal Contactless Biometric Systems

17 - Nanoradio

18 - Neuromorphic Engineering

19 - Optical Computing

20 - Quantum Computing

21 - Quantum Cryptography

22 - Quantum Radar

23 - Radio Frequency Identification

24 - Semantic Web

25 - Software Defined Radio

26 - Speech Recognition

27 - Subvocal Recognition

28 - Virtual Reality

29 - Digital Forensics

30 - Smart Machines

Emerging Technologies in Materials Science

1 - Aerogel

2 - Amorphous Metal

3 - Bioplastic

4 - Conductive Polymer

5 - Cryogenic Treatment

6 - Dynamic Armour

7 - Fullerene

8 - Graphene

9 - Lab on a Chip

10 - High Temperature Superconductivity

11 - Magnetic Nanoparticles

12 - Magnetorheological Fluid

13 - Microfluidics

14 - Superfluidity

15 - Metamaterial

16 - Metal Foam

17 - Multi Function Structure

18 - Nanomaterials

19 - Programmable Matter

20 - Quantum Dot

21 - Silicene

22 - Superalloy

23 - Synthetic Diamond

24 - Time Crystal

25 - Translucent Concrete

Emerging Technologies in Medical

1 - Artificial Womb

2 - Brain Implant

3 - Cryonics

4 - De-Extinction

5 - DNA Vaccine

6 - MRNA Vaccine

7 - Enzybiotics

8 - Genetic Engineering

9 - Suspended Animation

10 - Life Extension

11 - Strategies For Engineered Negligible Senescence

12 - Nanomedicine

13 - Nanosensor

14 - Omni Processor

15 - Oncolytic Virus

16 - Personalized Medicine

17 - Whole Genome Sequencing

18 - Phage Therapy

19 - Plantibody

20 - Regenerative Medicine

21 - Robot Assisted Surgery

22 - Senolytic

23 - Stem Cell Therapy

24 - Synthetic Biology

25 - Synthetic Genomics

26 - Tissue Engineering

27 - Tricorder

28 - Virotherapy

29 - Vitrification

30 - Cryoprotectant

Emerging Technologies in Military

1 - Caseless Ammunition

2 - Cloaking Device

3 - Directed Energy Weapon

4 - Electrolaser

5 - Electromagnetic Weapons

6 - Electrothermal Chemical Technology

7 - Energy Shield

8 - Green Bullet

9 - Cruise Missile

10 - Laser Weapon

11 - MAHEM

12 - Precision Guided Firearm

13 - Sonic Weapon

14 - Stealth Technology

15 - Telescoped Ammunition

16 - Lightweight Small Arms Technologies

Emerging Technologies in Neuroscience

1 - Brain Computer Interface

2 - Brain Reading

3 - Neuroinformatics

4 - Electroencephalography

5 - Head Transplant

6 - Neuroprosthetics

Emerging Technologies in Optoelectronics

1 - Volumetric Display

2 - Laser TV

3 - Holography

4 - Optical Transistor

5 - Screenless Video

Emerging Technologies in Robotics

1 - Swarm Intelligence

2 - Android

3 - Gynoid

4 - Gastrobot

5 - Molecular Nanotechnology

6 - Nanorobotics

7 - Powered Exoskeleton

8 - Self Reconfiguring Modular Robot

9 - Swarm Robotics

10 - Uncrewed Vehicle

Emerging Technologies in Space

1 - Artificial Gravity

2 - Asteroid Mining

3 - Breakthrough Starshot

4 - Inflatable Space Habitat

5 - Reusable Launch System

Emerging Technologies in Transport

1 - Airless Tire

2 - Autonomous Rail Rapid Transit

3 - Ion Propelled Aircraft

4 - Boeing X53 Active Aeroelastic Wing

5 - Adaptive Compliant Wing

6 - Fluidic Flight Controls

7 - Flying Car

8 - Fusion Rocket

9 - Ground Level Power Supply

10 - Hoverbike

11 - Hovertrain

12 - Ground Effect Train

13 - Atmospheric Satellite

14 - Jet Pack

15 - Backpack Helicopter

16 - Maglev

17 - Vactrain

18 - Magnetic Levitation

19 - Mass Driver

20 - Personal Rapid Transit

21 - Physical Internet

22 - Scooter Sharing System

23 - Propellant Depot

24 - Self Driving Car

25 - Space Elevator

26 - Spaceplane

27 - Vehicular Communication Systems

One Billion

Knowledgeable

Solid State Transformer

Revolutionizing the power grid with an emerging technology for power quality  improvement and energy efficiency enhancement

Fouad Sabry

Copyright

Solid State Transformer Copyright © 2022 by Fouad Sabry. All Rights Reserved.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means including information storage and retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the author. The only exception is by a reviewer, who may quote short excerpts in a review.

Cover designed by Fouad Sabry.

This book is a work of fiction. Names, characters, places, and incidents either are products of the author’s imagination or are used fictitiously. Any resemblance to actual persons, living or dead, events, or locales is entirely coincidental.

Bonus

You can send an email to [e-mail] with the subject line Solid State Transformer: Revolutionizing the power grid with an emerging technology for power quality  improvement and energy efficiency enhancement, and you will receive an email which contains the first few chapters of this book.

Fouad Sabry

Visit 1BK website at

www.1BKOfficial.org

Preface

Why did I write this book?

The story of writing this book started on 1989, when I was a student in the Secondary School of Advanced Students.

It is remarkably like the STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) Schools, which are now available in many advanced countries.

STEM is a curriculum based on the idea of educating students in four specific disciplines — science, technology, engineering, and mathematics — in an interdisciplinary and applied approach. This term is typically used to address an education policy or a curriculum choice in schools. It has implications for workforce development, national security concerns and immigration policy.

There was a weekly class in the library, where each student is free to choose any book and read for 1 hour. The objective of the class is to encourage the students to read subjects other than the educational curriculum.

In the library, while I was looking at the books on the shelves, I noticed huge books, total of 5,000 pages in 5 parts. The books name is The Encyclopedia of Technology, which describes everything around us, from absolute zero to semiconductors, almost every technology, at that time, was explained with colorful illustrations and simple words. I started to read the encyclopedia, and of course, I was not able to finish it in the 1-hour weekly class.

So, I convinced my father to buy the encyclopedia. My father bought all the technology tools for me in the beginning of my life, the first computer and the first technology encyclopedia, and both have a great impact on myself and my career.

I have finished the entire encyclopedia in the same summer vacation of this year, and then I started to see how the universe works and to how to apply that knowledge to everyday problems.

My passion to the technology started mor than 30 years ago and still the journey goes on.

This book is part of The Encyclopedia of Emerging Technologies which is my attempt to give the readers the same amazing experience I had when I was in high school, but instead of 20th century technologies, I am more interested in the 21st century emerging technologies, applications, and industry solutions.

The Encyclopedia of Emerging Technologies will consist of 365 books, each book will be focused on one single emerging technology. You can read the list of emerging technologies and their categorization by industry in the part of Coming Soon, at the end of the book.

365 books to give the readers the chance to increase their knowledge on one single emerging technology every day within the course of one year period.

Introduction

How did I write this book?

In every book of The Encyclopedia of Emerging Technologies, I am trying to get instant, raw search insights, direct from the minds of the people, trying to answer their questions about the emerging technology.

There are 3 billion Google searches every day, and 20% of those have never been seen before. They are like a direct line to the people thoughts.

Sometimes that’s ‘How do I remove paper jam’. Other times, it is the wrenching fears and secret hankerings they would only ever dare share with Google.

In my pursuit to discover an untapped goldmine of content ideas about Solid State Transformer, I use many tools to listen into autocomplete data from search engines like Google, then quickly cranks out every useful phrase and question, the people are asking around the keyword Solid State Transformer.

It is a goldmine of people insight, I can use to create fresh, ultra-useful content, products, and services. The kind people, like you, really want.

People searches are the most important dataset ever collected on the human psyche. Therefore, this book is a live product, and constantly updated by more and more answers for new questions about Solid State Transformer, asked by people, just like you and me, wondering about this new emerging technology and would like to know more about it.

The approach for writing this book is to get a deeper level of understanding of how people search around Solid State Transformer, revealing questions and queries which I would not necessarily think off the top of my head, and answering these questions in super easy and digestible words, and to navigate the book around in a straightforward way.

So, when it comes to writing this book, I have ensured that it is as optimized and targeted as possible. This book purpose is helping the people to further understand and grow their knowledge about Solid State Transformer. I am trying to answer people’s questions as closely as possible and showing a lot more.

It is a fantastic, and beautiful way to explore questions and problems that the people have and answer them directly, and add insight, validation, and creativity to the content of the book – even pitches and proposals. The book uncovers rich, less crowded, and sometimes surprising areas of research demand I would not otherwise reach. There is no doubt that, it is expected to increase the knowledge of the potential readers’ minds, after reading the book using this approach.

I have applied a unique approach to make the content of this book always fresh. This approach depends on listening to the people minds, by using the search listening tools. This approach helped me to:

Meet the readers exactly where they are, so I can create relevant content that strikes a chord and drives more understanding to the topic.

Keep my finger firmly on the pulse, so I can get updates when people talk about this emerging technology in new ways, and monitor trends over time.

Uncover hidden treasures of questions need answers about the emerging technology to discover unexpected insights and hidden niches that boost the relevancy of the content and give it a winning edge.

The building block for writing this book include the following:

(1) I have stopped wasting the time on gutfeel and guesswork about the content wanted by the readers, filled the book content with what the people need and said goodbye to the endless content ideas based on speculations.

(2) I have made solid decisions, and taken fewer risks, to get front row seats to what people want to read and want to know — in real time — and use search data to make bold decisions, about which topics to include and which topics to exclude.

(3) I have streamlined my content production to identify content ideas without manually having to sift through individual opinions to save days and even weeks of time.

It is wonderful to help the people to increase their knowledge in a straightforward way by just answering their questions.

I think the approach of writing of this book is unique as it collates, and tracks the important questions being asked by the readers on search engines.

Acknowledgments

Writing a book is harder than I thought and more rewarding than I could have ever imagined. None of this would have been possible without the work completed by prestigious researchers, and I would like to acknowledge their efforts to increase the knowledge of the public about this emerging technology.

Dedication

To the enlightened, the ones who see things differently, and want the world to be better -- they are not fond of the status quo or the existing state. You can disagree with them too much, and you can argue with them even more, but you cannot ignore them, and you cannot underestimate them, because they always change things... they push the human race forward, and while some may see them as the crazy ones or amateur, others see genius and innovators, because the ones who are enlightened enough to think that they can change the world, are the ones who do, and lead the people to the enlightenment.

Epigraph

In actuality, an AC-to-AC converter, also known as a solid-state transformer (SST), power electronic transformer (PET), or electronic power transformer, is a type of electric power converter that replaces a conventional transformer in AC electric power distribution. This type of electric power converter is known as an AC-to-AC converter. Because it works at a higher frequency, this kind of transformer is more complicated than a traditional transformer that uses the utility frequency, but it also has the potential to be more space-efficient and smaller than a traditional transformer. The two primary varieties are referred to as real AC-to-AC converters and AC-to-DC-to-DC-to-AC converters, respectively. The AC-to-AC converter or DC-to-DC converter that is often found inside of a solid-state transformer is really a transformer. This transformer is what provides the electrical isolation and carries the entire power. This transformer is more compact because the DC-DC inverting stages that occur between the transformer coils are on the smaller side. As a result, the transformer coils that are needed to step up or step down voltages are also on the smaller side. Active regulation of voltage and current may be performed via a solid-state transformer. There are several that are able to convert electricity from single-phase to three-phase and vice versa. The amount of conversions that need to take place may be decreased by having variations that can either input or output DC power. This results in increased end-to-end efficiency. A Modular Solid-state transformer is similar to a Multi-level converter in that it is made up of numerous high-frequency transformers and has the same function. Because it is an intricate electrical circuit, it has to be constructed such that it can survive surges of various kinds, such as lightning. The solid-state transformer is a relatively new kind of transformer.

Table of Contents

Other books by the author

Series by the author

Copyright

Bonus

Preface

Introduction

Acknowledgments

Dedication

Epigraph

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Solid-state transformer

Chapter 2: Power factor

Chapter 3: Rectifier

Chapter 4: Power supply

Chapter 5: Power inverter

Chapter 6: Switched-mode power supply

Chapter 7: DC-to-DC converter

Chapter 8: Voltage regulator

Chapter 9: Power electronics

Chapter 10: Motor–generator

Chapter 11: Rotary converter

Chapter 12: HVDC converter station

Chapter 13: Variable-frequency drive

Chapter 14: Index of electrical engineering articles

Chapter 15: H-bridge

Chapter 16: Phase converter

Chapter 17: Voltage converter

Chapter 18: Induction heater

Chapter 19: Transformer types

Chapter 20: Electric machine

Chapter 21: Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering

Epilogue

About the Author

Coming Soon

Appendices: Emerging Technologies in Each Industry

Chapter 1: Solid-state transformer

In actuality, an AC-to-AC converter, also known as a solid-state transformer (SST), power electronic transformer (PET), or electronic power transformer, is a type of electric power converter that replaces a conventional transformer in AC electric power distribution. This type of electric power converter is known as an AC-to-AC converter. Because it works at a higher frequency, this kind of transformer is more complicated than a traditional transformer that uses the utility frequency, but it also has the potential to be more space-efficient and smaller than a traditional transformer. The most common ones are called true AC-to-AC converters, and they don't have any DC stages in between. The other kind is called an AC-to-DC-to-DC-to-AC converter (in which an active rectifier supplies power to a DC-to-DC converter, which supplies power to a power inverter). The AC-to-AC converter or DC-to-DC converter that is often found inside of a solid-state transformer is really a transformer. This transformer is what provides the electrical isolation and carries the entire power. This transformer is more compact because the DC-DC inverting stages that occur between the transformer coils are on the smaller side. As a result, the transformer coils that are needed to step up or step down voltages are also on the smaller side. Active regulation of voltage and current may be performed via a solid-state transformer. There are several that are able to convert electricity from single-phase to three-phase and vice versa. The amount of conversions that need to take place may be decreased by having variations that can either input or output DC power. This results in increased end-to-end efficiency. A Modular Solid-state transformer is similar to a Multi-level converter in that it is made up of numerous high-frequency transformers and has the same function. Because it is an intricate electrical circuit, it has to be constructed such that it can survive surges of various kinds, such as lightning. The solid-state transformer is a relatively new kind of transformer.

{End Chapter 1}

Chapter 2: Power factor

The power factor of an AC power system is a dimensionless number that ranges from 1 to 1 and is defined as the ratio of the real power absorbed by the load to the apparent power flowing in the circuit in electrical engineering. This ratio is calculated by dividing the real power absorbed by the load by the apparent power flowing in the circuit. When the magnitude of the power factor is less than one, this shows that the voltage and current are out of phase, which lowers the average product of the two quantities. The ability of an electrical system to carry out work may be expressed as its real power, which is the instantaneous product of an electrical system's voltage and current. The product of RMS current and voltage is referred to as apparent power. It is possible for the perceived power to be higher than the true power. This may happen when energy is stored in the load and then returned to the source. It can also happen when a non-linear load distorts the wave pattern of the current that is pulled from the source. When the device (which is often the load) creates power, which then flows back towards the source, a negative power factor is produced.

A load that has a low power factor in an electric power system will consume a greater amount of current than a load that has a high power factor in the same system for the same amount of usable power delivered. The greater currents cause an increase in the amount of energy that is wasted throughout the distribution system and necessitate the use of bigger cables as well as additional apparatus. When there is a low power factor, electrical utilities will often charge industrial or commercial customers a higher price than residential users. This is because the expenses of bigger equipment and wasted energy are greater in these situations.

The power factor of a load may be improved by the use of power-factor correction, which in turn leads to an improvement in the distribution system's overall efficiency. A passive network consisting of capacitors and inductors may be used to adjust linear loads that have a poor power factor. One example of this would be induction motors. Current taken from the system may be distorted when it is pulled by non-linear loads such as rectifiers. In these types of situations, active or passive power factor correction could be used to fight against the distortion and improve the power factor. It is possible for the devices that rectify the power factor to be located at a central substation, spread out over a distribution system, or even incorporated into the equipment that uses the electricity.

Circuits consisting of combinations of resistors, inductors, and capacitors, for example, have a sinusoidal response when subjected to a sinusoidal line voltage. Linear time-invariant circuits, which will be referred to simply as linear circuits for the remainder of this article, are also referred to as linear circuits. Because of its inductance or capacitance, a linear load does not alter the shape of the waveform at the input, but it might cause a shift in the phase relationship (relative timing) between the voltage and the current.

A completely resistive alternating current circuit has voltage and current waveforms that are in step with one another, often known as being in phase, and they switch polarity at the same time throughout each cycle. The whole amount of electricity that is supplied to the load is used (or dissipated).

Because of the storage of energy in the loads, there is a phase mismatch between the waveforms of the current and the voltage when reactive loads are present. Reactive loads include components such as capacitors and inductors. During each cycle of the AC voltage, more energy is briefly stored in the load in the form of electric or magnetic fields. This extra energy is in addition to any energy that is spent in the load. This energy is then returned to the power grid a portion of the time later.

Electrical circuits that contain predominantly resistive loads, such as incandescent lamps and heating elements, have a power factor that is very close to 1. On the other hand, electrical circuits that contain inductive or capacitive loads, such as electric motors, solenoid valves, transformers, fluorescent lamp ballasts, and other components, can have a power factor that is significantly lower than 1.

Within the framework of the electric power grid, reactive loads are what produce a consistent ebb and flow of electricity that is not productive. A circuit with a low power factor will use a greater amount of current to transfer a given quantity of real power than a circuit with a high power factor will. This will result in increased losses as a result of resistive heating in power lines and will necessitate the use of conductors and transformers with higher ratings.

There are two components that make up AC power:

Real power or active power ( P ) (sometimes called average power), referred to in terms of watts (W)

Reactive power ( Q ), often quantified in terms of reactive volt-amperes (var)

Together, they form the complex power ( S ) expressed as volt-amperes (VA).

The magnitude of the complex power is the apparent power ( |S| ), furthermore able to be stated in volt-amperes (VA).

Non-SI units known as the VA and var are theoretically equivalent to the SI unit known as the watt. However, in engineering practice, the VA and var are used in place of the watt to specify what amount is being stated. The International System of Units expressly forbids utilizing units for this purpose or as the only source of information about a physical amount in their current form.

By using the power triangle in vector space, one is able to establish relationships between the different components of AC power. Both real power and reactive power stretch in the same direction, horizontally along the real axis, but imaginary power extends in the direction of the imaginary axis. Since complex power (as well as its magnitude, apparent power) is a mixture of real power and reactive power, it is possible to compute it by taking the vector sum of these two components. Complex power may also be referred to as apparent power. We are able to draw the following conclusion about the mathematical connection between these components:

{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}S&=P+jQ\\|S|&={\sqrt {P^{2}+Q^{2}}}\\{\text{pf}}&=\cos {\theta }={\frac {P}{|S|}}=\cos {\left(\arctan {\left({\frac {Q}{P}}\right)}\right)}\\Q&=P\,\tan(\arccos({\text{pf}}))\end{aligned}}}

As the angle θ increases with fixed total apparent power, The phase relationship between the current and voltage has become more severe.

The power in reality lessens, as well as an increase in reactive power.

If the voltage waveform is behind the current waveform in phase with regard to the power factor, then the power factor is said to be leading.

or leading, which describes a situation in which the current waveform is ahead of the voltage waveform.

A load that is inductive is indicated by a power factor that is behind the load. , as the load will consume reactive power.

The reactive component Q is positive as reactive power travels through the circuit and is consumed by the inductive load.

A load that is capacitive is indicated by having a power factor that is leading.

as the load supplies reactive power, and therefore the reactive component Q is negative as reactive power is being supplied to the circuit.

If θ is the phase angle between the current and voltage, Consequently, the cosine of the angle is equivalent to the power factor if we look at it that way. , \cos \theta :

|P|=|S|\cos \theta

Due to the fact that the units are all the same, the power factor is by definition a dimensionless number that falls between -1 and 1. When the power factor is equal to zero, the flow of energy is completely reactive, and any energy that is stored in the load is transferred back to the source at the end of each cycle. If the power factor is 1, then the load is using up all of the energy that is being provided by the source. In order to indicate the direction of the phase angle, power factors are often described as leading or lagging. The current via capacitive loads comes in ahead of the voltage through inductive loads, which come in after (current lags voltage).

When a completely resistive load is connected to a power source, the polarity of the current and