The Miracle Tree: Moringa Oleifera

By Manuel C. Palada

For thousands of years, moringa (Moringa oleifera) has been used as a food crop and as a medicinal plant. Almost all of moringa’s plant parts have multiple uses, particularly the leaves and seed pods, which are highly nutritious. During the past several decades, more attention has focused on exploring and expanding the multiple uses and benefits of this miracle tree. Advances in research and development are rapidly progressing in the areas of botany and germplasm improvement, agronomy, nutrition, natural medicine, and its commercialization by the food and cosmetics industry. Recent developments are not only focusing on using moringa as a food crop, but also as an industrial commodity, with applications such as water clarification, livestock feed, and biofuel. This book presents much information collected from various sources including field research studies conducted by organizations involved in developing and promoting moringa as one of the most useful plants, articles written by individuals with experience and knowledge about moringa, as well as other books and publications cited in this present edition.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris US
• Release date: Sep 11, 2019
• ISBN: 9781796044539

Manuel C. Palada

The lead author (editor) is an experienced international horticulturist who worked in Africa, Asia and the Eastern Caribbean region. He conducted research studies on indigenous vegetables including Moringa. He wrote several technical and popular articles on the subject of vegetable and agronomic crops. As an international horticulturist he developed crop production technologies useful for small-scale farmers in developing countries. He was the convenor of the First International Symposium on Moringa held in Manila, Philippines on November, 2015 and co-authored the proceedings as well as a book chapter on Moringa.

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Copyright © 2019 by Manuel Palada. 798755

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Rev. date: 09/10/2019

Contents

Dedication

Foreword

About the Editors

Acknowledgements

List of Contributors

Preface

Chapter

1. Introduction: Moringa - A Miracle Tree Crop

Manuel C. Palada

2. Introduction to the Moringa Family: Origin, Distribution and Biodiversity

Mark E. Olson

3. Botany and Propagation

Marl E. Olson, Manuel C. Palada, Nilkolaus Foidl and Ricky M. Bates

4. Economic Importance

Manuel C. Palada

5. Climate, Soil and Cultivation

Manuel C. Palada, Nikolaus Foidl, Ricky M. Bates, Andreas W. Ebert and Newton Amaglo

6. High Density Moringa Cultivation

Nikolaus Foidl

7. Cropping Systems and Economics of Production

Manuel Palada, Nikolaus Foidl, and Newton Amaglo

8. Harvesting, Postharvest Technology and Processing

Manuel Palada and Nikolaus Foidl

9. A Global Review of the Insect and Mite Pests and Pollinators of Moringa oleifera Lam. and their Management

Ravindra C. Joshi and Baliah V. David

10. Diseases of Moringa and Their Management

Vinayagam Ponnuswami

11. Genetic Resources, Diversity and Crop Improvement

A.W. Ebert, M.E. Olson, R.M. Bates and M.C. Palada

12. Nutritional Quality and Benefits

12.1 Phytonutrient Values of Moringa oleifera Leaves

J.W. Luoh, A. Sheu, W.-J. Wu and R.-Y. Yang

12.2 Enhancing Nutrient Intake from Moringa Leaves Through Adequate Consumption Patterns

A. de Saint Sauveur,, M.G. Amenglor, J. Kinda and F. Colomban

12.3 Anticlastogenic effects of organically grown moringa (Moringa oleifera), lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus), and sweet sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) using micronucleus test

G.C. Sanchez, M.D. Dizon and H.M. Soriano Jr.

13. Medicinal Potential and Benefits of Moringa oleifera

13.1 Moringa oleifera Medicinal Potential and Benefits

Jed W. Fahey

13.2 Moringa in Traditional Medicine

Vanisha S. Nambiar

13.3 Moringa oleifera - from Plant to (simple) Medicine

Monica G. Marcu

14. Potential of Moringa for Livestock Production

14.1 Moringa as Alternative Livestock Feed

Bryan Mendieta-Araica and Nadir Reyes-Sánchez

14.2 The Potential of Moringa oleifera as Livestock Feed Ingredient

Wasif Nouman

14.3 Utilization of Moringa oleifera Lam. in Animal Production

J. Briones, A. Leung, N. Bautista, S. Golin, N. Caliwag, M.A. Carlos, J. Guevarra, J. Miranda, J.K. Guevarra, N.L. Pili, D. Mendoza and N. De Jesus

15. Utilization of Moringa in Agro-Industry

Manuel C. Palada

16. Moringa oleifera Leaf Extract: A Natural Plant Growth Stimulant, a Review

Wasif Nouman and Shahzad M.A. Basra

17. Moringa in the Cosmetics Industry: Benefits of Moringa oleifera as Active Ingredients for Cosmetics

Jennifer L. Polintan

18. Farmer Participatory and Community Livelihood Projects

18.1 Moringa Research and Cultivation in Niger

Dov Pasternak, John D.H. Keatinge and Zakaria Mamoudou

18.2 Moringa as Part of a Community Development Project in Mauritania, West Africa and Relief Project for Refugees in Algeria, North Africa

Beth Doerr and Tim Motis

19. The Potential of Moringa in Climate Change, Sustainable Livelihood and Food Security – A Review

Newton Amaglo, Jiehong Deng and Nikolaus Foidl

20. Global Perspective: Moringa Around the World

Ricardo C. Patricio and Manuel C. Palada

ANNEX

The%20Miracle%20Tree%20Exodus%2015%20Bible%20verses%20%e2%80%94%e2%80%94%20done.psd

Dedication

Dedication.jpg

11 December 1957 – 21 April 2010

Dedicated in memory of Dr. Lowell Fuglie, author of

The Miracle Tree – Moringa oleifera

First Edition, 1999

THE MIRACLE TREE

Moringa oleifera

Second Edition

by

Prof (Dr.) Manuel C. Palada

College of Agriculture, Resources and Environmental Sciences

Central Philippine University

Jaro, Iloilo City, Philippines

Dr. Andreas W. Ebert

Tropical Agriculture and Management of Plant Genetic Resources

and Genebanks

Schwaebisch Gmuend

Germany

Dr. Ravindra C. Joshi

Sustainable Agriculture, Food and Energy (SAFE) Network

Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Andalas University

Padang, Indonesia 26163

2019

Logo%20of%20Central%20Philippine%20University%20of%20Ilo-ilo.jpg

Central Philippine University

Jaro, Iloilo City, Philippines

THE MIRACLE TREE

Moringa oleifera

Second Edition

© 2019

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material from aunthentic sources which are acknowledged and indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the editors and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use.

All rights are reserved under International and Pan American Copyright Conventions. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright Act, 1956, no part of this publicatioin may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means-electronic, electrical, chemical, mechanical, optical, photo copying, recording or otherwise-without the prior permission of the copyright owner.

Foreword

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Dennis P. Garrity

For thousands of years, moringa (Moringa oleifera) has been used as a food crop and as a medicinal plant. Almost all of moringa’s plant parts have multiple uses, particularly the leaves and seed pods, which are highly nutritious. During the past several decades, more attention has focused on exploring and expanding the multiple uses and benefits of this miracle tree. Advances in research and development are rapidly progressing in the areas of botany and germplasm improvement, agronomy, nutrition, natural medicine, and its commercialization by the food and cosmetics industry. Recent developments are not only focusing on using moringa as a food crop, but also as an industrial commodity, with applications such as water clarification, livestock feed, and biofuel.

Earlier, the mainstream emphasis was on the nutritional and health benefits of moringa. It is a fast-growing plant and it produces large quantities of leaf biomass in a relatively short period of time. Research at the World Vegetable Center and other agricultural institutions has demonstrated its high yield potential, and its impact on alleviating poverty and malnutrition when produced and consumed as a vegetable. Moringa has a relative advantage compared to other food crops, as it provides high levels of protein, vitamins, amino acids and phytonutrients. Moringa leaves provide a rich source of β-carotene, protein, vitamin C, iron, calcium and potassium. It is also a good source of natural antioxidants such as ascorbic acid, flavonoids, carotenoids and phenolic substances.

Moringa can be grown in a wide range of climates. It has a very significant role to play in a world that is increasingly aware of the many who are undernourished and malnourished. During the 20th century, with the impact of the green revolution, agriculture fed the world with increased levels of protein and carbohydrates from high-yielding cultivars of dietary staple crops. In the 21st century, biofortification is seen by many funding agencies as the way to address malnutrition. But crop and diet diversification is in many ways a better, and more sustainable approach, to addressing hidden hunger than than the biofortification of staple crops. Moringa is a highly nutritious food crop that has the potential to play an enormous role in creating that dietary diversity and richness.

Many international scientific conferences have been convened in the past 20 years to highlight the current importance and future role of moringa around the world. The most recent was the First International Symposium on Moringa which was convened in Manila, Philippines, in November 2015, under the auspices of the International Society for Horticultural Sciences. The theme of the symposium was Moringa: A Decade of Advances in Research and Development. The symposium had 180 participants from 42 countries, sharing their experiences, expertise and knowledge on a wide range of topics, including the botany and germplasm, production technology, health and nutrition, industrial uses and cross-commodity issues.

The release of this book is very timely. It provides useful and comprehensive information about moringa that will be appreciated by readers across the globe. It adds to our knowledge and understanding of the importance and role of moringa for the benefit of all who may be interested in learning more about this miracle tree, as well as those that are engaged in using moringa for improved health, nutrition and income.

I heartily congratulate Prof. Manuel C. Palada, Dr. Andreas W. Ebert and Prof. Ravindra C. Joshi for their terrific effort in creating this new and improved edition, and for making it available to everyone. We owe them our warmest gratitude for their great dedication to the moringa world community.

Image%20tagging%20(1)%20JPEG.jpg

Dennis P. Garrity

Former Director General, World Agroforestry Centre

Drylands Ambassador, UN Convention to Combat Desertification

Senior Fellow, World Agroforestry Centre

Senior Fellow, World Resources Institute

Chair, EverGreen Agriculture Partnership

Chair, Landcare International

Foreword

Foreword%20-%20Teodoro%20C.%20Robles.jpg

Teodoro C. Robles

It has been my belief that the academe should not only limit its scope to student development or to producing globally competent graduates. An academic institution, it being one of the integral parts of the society, should also do its share of extending its reach to what is outside its gates, especially on programs that contribute to sustainable development.

In the recent years, Central Philippine University has been focusing on agriculture owing to the fact that it is an industry where the university can do its share in nation-building by tapping the potentials of our grassroots community, especially our farmers. In the recent times, the emerging economic profitability and undeniable health benefits of Moringa oleifera has caught the attention of CPU, seeing it as an avenue to extend help to others through research and development.

Moringa is found in almost all parts of the Philippines, thus, it is but fitting that this country takes advantage of its availability. Studies have been conducted to explore more on the benefits that we can get from Moringa, so that that this plant may be used to its full potential. The recent years have been good for the industry as government and private sectors have been providing the necessary assistance for it to grow locally and internationally.

Central Philippine University is truly honored for the opportunity to be involved in meaningful projects like this book, now on its second edition. With a heart full of optimism and faith, I hope and pray that, in the coming years, the university will be more involved in researches and endeavors that will impact not only the Centralian community but the country eventually. I am confident that by focusing our resources to undertakings promoting growth and development, we could help secure a better Philippines for the generations to come.

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TEODORO C. ROBLES, Ph.D.

President

Central Philippine University

Iloilo City, Philippines

About the Editors

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Dr. Manuel C. Palada

Dr. Manuel C. Palada obtained his B.S. in Agriculture from Central Philippine University, M.Sc in Agronomy from the University of the Philippines at Los Banos and a Ph.D. in Horticultural Science (Vegetable Crops) from the University of Florida. Dr. Palada has over five decades of working experience as international agronomist and horticulturist. He has worked with three international agricultural research centers in Asia (IRRI and AVRDC – The World Vegetable Center), and in Africa (IITA). Dr. Palada has made significant contributions to international horticulture as a researcher, teacher, and outreach specialist. He has made a genuine impact in developing sustainable crop production systems for resource-poor farmers across the globe, from the Caribbean basin to Eastern and Western Africa and throughout Asia and the Pacific. In 2005 he was an Outstanding International Horticulturist awardee of the American Society for Horticultural Science. Dr. Palada has been very active in the promotion of moringa both in the Philippines and abroad giving seminars and workshops on moringa. He has conducted agronomic and horticultural studies on moringa in the Caribbean, Africa, Asia and USA. Dr. Palada is also the President and Chief Executive Officer of the Farm Systems International Organization (FSI). He organized FSI upon his retirement as Head of the Crop and Ecosystems Management Unit at AVRDC -The World Vegetable Center in Taiwan.. His current research is focused on varietal evaluation for horticultural characteristics of moringa in the Philippines. He has published several technical and scientific papers on moringa and vegetable crops as well as book chapters and production guides. His journal article titled "Moringa (Moringa oleifera (Lam.): A Versatile Tree Crop with Horticultural Potential in the Southern United States" HortScience Vol. 3(5):794-797, 1996 was the first article on moringa published in American Society for Horticultural Science journal. Dr. Palada initiated the organization of the First International Symposium on Moringa at Crowne Plaza Manila Galleria Convention Center, November 15-18, 2015 in which he was the Convener. He is the co-editor of the Proceedings of the I International Symposium on Moringa. Acta Horticulturae # 1158, International Society for Horticultural Science. He also serves as Chairman of Moringa Working Group, ISHS. Dr. Palada is a free lance consultant on horticultural crops and presently serves as Visiting and Adjunct Professor of Sustainable Agriculture at the College of Agricultural, Resources and Environmental Sciences, Central Philippine University, Iloilo City, Philippines.

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Dr. Andreas W. Ebert

Dr. Andreas W. Ebert graduated in May 1976 from the University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany with a Diploma degree in Agricultural Sciences. In February 1980 he obtained his Ph.D. with distinction (magna cum laude) for his work on ‘Hormonal aspects of crop regulation in apple’ at the Institute for Fruit and Vegetable Production and Viticulture from the same University. Thereafter, he held a Postdoc position at the Glasshouse Crops Research Institute in Littlehampton, UK, where he conducted research on tomatoes. At a later stage, he worked on somatic embryogenesis of coconut at Wye College, University of London. Dr. Ebert dedicated his entire professional life to agricultural research for development in the tropics and subtropics, in Latin America, West Africa, East and Southeast Asia, and Oceania. From 2002 to 2008, he was Team Leader of an interdisciplinary plant genetic resources group at CATIE in Costa Rica, directed CATIE’s genebank and served as Professor at its Graduate School. From 2008 until his retirement in December 2015, he held the position of Genebank Manager and Global Theme Leader – Germplasm at the World Vegetable Center’s headquarters in Taiwan. Currently, Dr. Ebert is a Freelance Consultant in tropical agriculture and the management of plant genetic resources and genebanks. He is passionate about the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources, especially landraces, farmers’ varieties and crop wild relatives—key resources for crop improvement and adaptation to climate change. Dr. Ebert is author and co-author of numerous peer-reviewed journal articles and book chapters. He is senior author and editor of the bilingual book ‘Securing our future: CATIE’s germplasm collections – Asegurando nuestro futuro: Colecciones de germoplasma del CATIE. Dr. Ebert is senior editor of the Proceedings of the I International Symposium on Moringa. Acta Horticulturae # 1158, International Society for Horticultural Science.

About%20the%20Editors%20-%20Dr.%20Ravindra%20C.%20Josh.jpg

Dr. Ravindra C. Joshi

Dr. Ravindra C. Joshi is currently the SAFE-Network Pacific Islands coordinator; CABI-SEA Associate; Tropical Agriculture Association (UK) coordinator for the Pacific region; and technical adviser to Deltamed, Spain on invasive apple snail. He was also formerly visiting adjunct professor of Agriculture at the University of the South Pacific, Fiji; He was a former chief science research specialist at the Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice) where he first started working on invasive apple snail in 1987. His central research over twenty-five years is on invasive alien species (IAS), important to agriculture sector, at the international, regional and national organizations, including the private and academic institutions, in Africa, Asia and Pacific Island countries. He published four manuals on IAS: Global Advances in Ecology and Management of Golden Apple Snails, Rice Black Bug: Taxonomy, Ecology, Management of Invasive Species, Philippine Rats: Ecology and Management, and Biology and Management of Invasive Apple Snails. In addition, he has also published over 150 research articles on IAS and their management. He has a PhD in Entomology from the University of the Philippines Los Baños in 1988. He has worked as a rice entomologist at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Nigeria, and as a crop protection specialist under the auspices of the Cambodia-IRRI-Australia Project. He reviewed the crop protection research programs of the International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology in 1988 and of PhilRice in 1998. He was also visiting professor at the University of the Philippines, Baguio, and Pampanga State Agricultural University, the Philippines. He also served as a short-term bench consultant to the System-wide Program on Integrated Pest Management (IPM) / Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research Leafminer Flies Technical Working Group, and to the Food and Agriculture Organization’s rice-fish IPM project in Surinam and Guyana. He was also the site coordinator in Solomon Islands with the World Vegetable Center; former senior adviser/consultant to the offices of minister and permanent secretary of Agriculture in Solomon Islands and Fiji, to advise on policy and research areas, and as former Non-OECD Representative to the CG Fund Council (formerly CGIAR) to represent the Pacific Island Countries and Territories. Dr. Joshi also served as member of the Scientific Committee of the First International Symposium on Moringa held in Manila, Philippines on November 15-18, 2015.

Acknowledgements

This book presents much information collected from various sources including field research studies conducted by organizations involved in developing and promoting moringa as one of the most useful plants, articles written by individuals with experience and knowledge about moringa, as well as other books and publications cited in this present edition.

Special appreciation is presented to the individual contributors of the chapters and sections which constitute the general and basic information on the various aspects of the moringa plant. They have been active in promoting moringa through research and publication.

Special acknowledgement goes to the World Vegetable Center in providing financial support during the initial writing of the book. Likewise, special thanks and appreciation are extemded to Central Philippine University for hosting and providing the first editor of this book a working office space and facilities.

List of Contributors

Newton K. Amaglo

Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology

Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources,

Department of Horticulture, Kumasi, Ghana

[e-mail]

Bryan Mendieta Araica

Universidad Nacional Agraria

Km 12 ½ C. Norte, Managua

Nicaragua 11072

[e-mail]

Shazad Basra

University of Agriculture

Faisalabad, Pakistan 38040

[e-mail]

Ricky M. Bates

Pennsylvania State University

303 Tyson Building

University Park, PA 16802

USA

[e-mail]

Nestor D. Bautista

College of Agriculture Systems and Technology

Pampanga State Agricultural University

Magalang, Pampanga

Philippines 2011

Joanarch C. Briones

College of Agriculture Systems and Technology

Pampanga State Agricultural University

Magalang, Pampanga

Philippines 2011

[e-mail]

Noel Caliwag

College of Agriculture Systems and Technology

Pampanga State Agricultural University

Magalang, Pampanga

Philippines 2011

Mark A. Carlos

College of Agriculture Systems and Technology

Pampanga State Agricultural University

Magalang, Pampanga

Philippines 2011

Francois Colomban

Danone Nutricia Research

RD 128, Avenue de la Vauve

91767 Palaiseau

France

[e-mail]

Baliah Vasantharaj David

International Institute of Biotechnology & Toxicology

Padappai 601 301, Kancheepuram District

Tamil Nadu, India

[e-mail]

Jiehong Deng

College of Food Science & Technology

Hunan Agricultural University

1 Nongda Road, Changsha City

Hunan, China 410128

[e-mail]

Mariel D. Dizon

San Agustin, Magalang

Pampanga, Philippines

[e-mail]

Beth Doerr

1106 Lytle Road

Chickamauga, GA 30707

U.S.A.

[e-mail]

Andreas W. Ebert

Oderstr. 3

D-73529 Schwaebisch Gmuend

Germany

[e-mail]

Jed W. Fahey

Johns Hopkins School of Medicine

Johns Hopkins University

855 N. Wolfe St., Suite 625 John Rangos Bldg.

Baltimore, Maryland, USA

[e-mail]; [e-mail]

Nikolaus Foidl

St. Peter, Hauptstrasse

35 B St. Peter

Hauptstrasse 35 b/3/5

Graz, Steiermark

Austria 8042

[e-mail]

Segundo N. Golin

Pampanga State Agricultural University

Magalang, Pampanga

Philippines 2011

Jaypee Guevarra

Pampanga State Agricultural University

Magalang, Pampanga

Philippines 2011

Norman G. de Jesus

Pampanga State Agricultural University

Magalang, Pampanga

Philippines 2011

Ravindra C. Joshi

Sustainable Agriculture, Food and Energy (SAFE) Network

Faculty of Agricultural Technology

Andalas University

Padang, Indonesia 26163

[e-mail]

[e-mail]

John D.H. Keatinge

Manor House, Garriston

Leyburn, N. Yorks, DL8 5JT

United Kingdom

[e-mail]

Justin Kinda

BP 7140

Ouagadougou 03

Burkina Faso

[e-mail]

Alberto B. Leung

Pampanga State Agricultural University

Magalang, Pampanga

Philippines 2011

Jen W. Luoh

Nutrition, World Vegetable Center

Tainan, Taiwan 741

[e-mail]

Zakaria Mamoudu

International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics

ICRISAT Niamey

BP 12404

Niamey, Niger

[e-mail]

Monica Marcu

Plant, Beauty, Medicine Research Consulting

Seattle, Washington, USA 5424

[e-mail]

Dante M. Mendoza

Pampanga State Agricultural University

Magalang, Pampanga

Philippines 2011

J. Miranda

Pampanga State Agricultural University

Magalang, Pampanga

Philippines 2011

Tim Motis

ECHO Incorporated

17391 Durrance Road

North Fort Myers, FL 33917

[e-mail]

Vanisha Nambiar

Department of Foods and Nutrition

The Maharaja Sayaji Rao University of Baroda

Vadodara, Gujarat, India 390002

[e-mail]

Wasif Nouman

Department of Forestry & Range Management

Bahauddin Zakariya University

Multan, Punjab, Pakistan

[e-mail]

Mark E. Olson

Instituto de Biología, Universidad

Nacional Autónoma de México

Tercer Circuito s/n de Ciudad Universitaria

México DF 04510, Mexico

[e-mail]

Manuel C. Palada

College of Agriculture, Resources & Environmental Sciences

Central Philippine University

Lopez Jaena St., Jaro, Iloilo City

Philippines 5000

[e-mail]

Dov Pasternak

International Consultant, Dry Regions

Kibbutz Kissufim, Israel

[e-mail]

Ricardo Patricio

Unimax Power Asia, Inc.

51 Juan Luna St., La Castellana

Negros Occidental, Philippines 6131

[e-mail]

N. Pili

Pampanga State Agricultural University

Magalang, Pampanga

Philippines 2011

Jennifer Polintan

Unit 1612 Laureano di Trevi Tower 2

2214 Chino Roces Ave.

Makati City, Philippines

[e-mail]

Vinayagam Ponnuswami

Horticultural College and Research Institute

Tamil Nadu Agricultural University

Coimbatore 641003, Tamil Nadu, India

[e-mail]

Geraldine C. Sanchez

College of Agriculture Systems and Technology

Pampanga State Agricultural University

Magalang, Pampanga

Philippines 2011

[e-mail]

Nadir Reyes Sanchez

Universidad Nacional Agraria

Km 12 ½ C. Norte, Managua

Nicaragua 11072

[e-mail]

Armelle de Saint Sauveur

Moringanews

211 rue du Faubourg Saint Antoine

75011 Paris, France

[e-mail]

Andrew Sheu

Nutrition, World Vegetable Center

Tainan, Taiwan 741

[e-mail]

H.M. Soriano

College of Agriculture Systems and Technology

Pampanga State Agricultural University

Magalang, Pampanga

Philippines 2011

[e-mail]

Wan Jen Wu

Nutrition, World Vegetable Center

Tainan, Taiwan 741

[e-mail]

Ray Yu Yang

Nutrition, World Vegetable Center

Tainan, Taiwan 741

[e-mail]

Preface

As an indigenous plant native to northern India, moringa (Moringa oleifera) was initially not well known and not popular. However, over the past several decades it has grown in popularity due to its nutritional and health benefits. Many publications including books, manuals, pamphlets, production guides, proceedings, and scientific journal articles abound both in the general media and in the world wide web spreading its importance and benefits.

During the past two decades a great number of information has accumulated and was circulated, specifically on advances in research and development of moringa. The most recent comprehensive publication is the proceedings of the First International Symposium on Moringa published by the International Society for Horticultural Science (ISHS) in a volume of Acta Horticulturae #1153 (April 2017). The proceedings included 55 articles from authors who presented their papers at the symposium under the theme: A Decade of Research and Development. A wide range of topics including botany and germplasm, production technology, health and nutrition, industrial uses and cross commodity issues on moringa are presented in this volume.

The first edition of the book: " The Miracle Tree – Moringa oleifera: Natural Nutrition for the Tropics was published in 1999 by the late Lowell J. Fuglie when he was working for the Church World Service relief and development assistance ministry in Africa. In late 2009 before Lowell Fuglie passed away he was planning to update his book The Miracle Tree: The Multiple Uses of Moringa" which was published in 2001 with support from CTA, Netherlands. He invited several authors to contribute a chapter to the proposed update. It was unfortunate that the updated version of the book was never published or completed before Lowell died. After almost two decades, there has been considerable progress in moringa research and development in response to increasing demand for new information on various topics about moringa. After the two international conferences on moringa in Africa (Tanzania 2001 and Ghana 2006), and one international symposium in the Philippines (2015) there has been considerable new information in R&D addressing the challenges and issues presented and discussed during those conferences.

This second edition of the book is a more comprehensive compendium of information on the various aspects of moringa which were not completely covered in the first edition published two decades ago. Most of the information and contents in the first edition are not included in the present edition. The information will be useful for students, researchers, teachers, farmers and the growing moringa industry.

Manuel C. Palada, Andreas W. Ebert and Ravindra C. Joshi

Editors

Chapter 1

Introduction: Moringa - A Miracle Tree Crop

Manuel C. Palada

During the past two decades there has been a growing interest in the moringa plant, botanically known as Moringa oleifera Lam. Considered as a Miracle Tree, the multiple uses of moringa have been the subject of considerable research and development efforts around the world. This popular and widely known species is a versatile tree crop with multiple horticultural, environmental and industrial uses and is widely grown in many tropical and subtropical regions (Palada, 1996; Fuglie, 1999; Foidl et al., 2001; Fahey, 2005, Palada and Ebert, 2015). The wide range of uses of almost all plant parts of moringa have drawn the attention of plant scientists, researchers, extension workers, development agencies, farmers and the industrial sector in many countries around the globe. New developments and studies in the field of agronomy, horticulture, biotechnology, biochemistry, engineering, nutrition, natural medicine and industry led to today’s importance of moringa as one of the most useful plants for the benefit of the human society. This book, a second edition of ‘The Miracle Tree: Moringa oleifera – Natural Nutrition for the Tropics’, presents a comprehensive review of the past and most recent state of the art research and development studies on moringa, in various fields. Information presented in this book can be used as guide for future direction towards finding and exploiting new uses and opportunities for moringa, a truly multi-purpose tree species.

Moringa oleifera Lam. belongs to the monogeneric family of shrubs and trees Moringaceae, and is considered to have originated in Agra and Oudh, in the northwest region of India, south of the Himalayan Mountains. The name Shigon for M. oleifera is mentioned in the Shushruta Sanhita that was written in the beginning of the first century A.D., but there is evidence that the cultivation of this tree in India dates further back, many thousands of years. The Indians knew that the seeds contained edible oil and they used them for medicinal purposes. It is probable that the common people also knew of its value as fodder or a vegetable. This tree can be found growing naturally at elevations of up to 1,000 m above sea level. It can grow well on hillsides but is more frequently found growing on pastureland or in river basins. Moringa is a fast-growing tree and has been found to grow to 6 - 7 m height in one year, in areas receiving less than 400 mm mean annual rainfall (Odee, et al., 2001).

In the Dravidian language of southern India, there are many local names for this tree but all are derived from the generic root Morunga. In English, it is commonly known as Horseradish tree, Drumstick tree, Never Die tree, West Indian Ben tree, and Radish tree (Ramachandran et al., 1980). Moringa is now cultivated throughout the Middle East and most of the tropics. It was introduced in eastern Africa from India at the beginning of 20th century. In Nicaragua, the Marango (local name for Moringa oleifera) was introduced in the 1920’s as an ornamental plant and for use as a living fence. The tree grows best and is most commonly found on the Pacific side of Nicaragua but can also be found in forests in every part of the country. As a non-cultivated plant it is known for its resistance to drought and diseases (Foidl et al., 2001).

The Moringa family comprises 13 tropical and sub-tropical tree species. Moringa oleifera is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Moringa, which is the only genus in the family of Moringaceae. It is an exceptionally nutritious vegetable tree with multiple and potential uses. For centuries, many cultures have looked at moringa as a general remedy and healing agent. Moringa benefits are both broad and compelling. Its effectiveness is known for treating more than 300 health-related conditions and has been utilized in folk medicine to treat a variety of health conditions. In 2008, the moringa tree was named the most promising botanical tree by the U.S. National Institute of Health. Moringa is an extraordinary plant because it has all the nutrients that could be found in a perfect food (Marcu, 2005).

According to Trees for Life organization (2012), moringa trees have great potential in combating extreme poverty and hunger. The nutritious leaves grow rapidly, and in many types of environment, and can feed people as well as livestock and sanctuary animals. Surprisingly, the leaves contain complete protein with all the essential amino acids. In many developing countries, moringa is used as a micronutrient powder to fight indigenous diseases.

Although moringa is not popular in the Western world, it is potentially one of the world’s most valuable plants. Known also as a vegetable tree, moringa is grown for food rather than forestry. Almost every plant part of moringa is edible. The leaves, pods, seeds, flowers and roots are consumed either fresh or in dried form as processed products. Beyond edibles, it provides products that make village life more self-sufficient: lubricating oil, lamp oil, wood, paper, liquid fuel, skin treatments, and it has the means to help purify water, to name but a few. The living tree itself, also provides such things as shade, landscaping, and shelter from the elements (National Research Council, 2006).

Depending on the region and eating preference, the edible parts differ in how they are consumed. For instance, in India the green young pods are consumed more than the leaves, whereas in the Philippines, the leaves are commonly utilized, much more than green pods, except in some provinces and towns. There are thirteen species in the family Moringaceae, but M. oleifera is the most popular. In this book, the chapters are more focused on M. oleifera because it is most widely studied and utilized. Within this species, many local varieties have been improved through breeding and selection. Some varieties flower profusely and are used chiefly to produce young pods; others flower sparsely and principally yield leaves. Varieties with long pods are ideal for seed production as seeds are consumed fresh or dry. A single tree grown under favorable conditions can, for instance, bear more than 1,000 pods a season and can supply leaves year round if the climate is conducive.

The outstanding nutrient-rich and health enhancing benefits of moringa are well-documented in mainstream scientific journals and related publications and are the subject of current studies in nutrition, health and medicine. Moringa contains most of the important and essential nutrients needed by the body. The leaves, flowers, seeds, pods, roots, bark, gum and the seed oil from moringa are continually being subjected to intensive research and development since the various components of the plant are known to have nutritional and medicinal properties (Villafuerte and Villafuerte-Abonal, 2009).

Moringa has been used to combat malnutrition, especially among infants and nursing mothers. Three non-governmental organizations in particular—Trees for Life, Church World Service and Educational Concerns for Hunger Organization—have advocated moringa as "natural nutrition for the tropics." Leaves can be eaten fresh, cooked, or stored as dried powder for many months without refrigeration, and reportedly without loss of nutritional value. Moringa is especially promising as a food source in the tropics because the tree is in full leaf at the end of the dry season when other foods are typically scarce (Fahey, 2005).

Considered as the most nutritious plant food, moringa is superior to other plants in terms of nutritional properties and qualities. For one thing it provides a good balance of all the essential amino acids (Fuglie, 2001; Yang et al., 2006; Marcu, 2005). Moringa leaves contain most of the vitamins, minerals and active phytonutrients needed by the human body. It has at least 49 natural phytonutrient compounds, 20 types of amino acids, 46 types of antioxidants and 36 anti-inflammatory compounds (Villafuerte and Villafuerte-Abonal, 2009). Phytonutrients or phytochemicals are very important because they are natural bioactive compounds in plants that work together with other nutrients (vitamins, minerals, fiber, etc.) to protect human health from diseases.

Beyond traditional medicine, scientific evidence in clinical studies confirms the potential of moringa in providing chemoprevention and protection against major, common diseases including cancer, diabetes, asthma, hypertension, tumor, etc., caused by viruses, fungi, bacteria and stress related to the environment (Fahey, 2005, 2017).

Foliage is the next most important moringa food. People in many countries boil up the tiny leaflets and eat them like spinach—a spinach that nature has chopped to confetti size. In the Philippines, where moringa is exceptionally popular, these boiled leaves are commonly fed to babies. Nutritionally speaking, they are remarkable for methionine and cystine. Both are essential to health, and both are among the hardest amino acids for the body to acquire from plant-based diets. Moreover, moringa leaves contain vitamins A and C, more calcium than most other greens, and so much iron that doctors prescribe them for anemic patients. And regular consumption of the leaves is reported to increase milk production among lactating women.

Because of discoveries like these, many development organizations around the world are actively promoting moringa leaves and dried leaf powder as nutritional supplements. The leaves are remarkably easy to handle. Unlike many other leaf crops there is no fibrous leaf stalk (petiole) to be removed. The leaflets are thus 100 percent edible and contain more than three times the dry matter of spinach; therefore, they dry quickly and easily.

The thick, soft roots are probably moringa’s third most important food resource. They are a popular condiment, with the flavor of horseradish, for which they are employed as a substitute. Other parts of this plant provide useful food items too. The shoot tips, flowers, and even whole seedlings make boiled greens that are similarly high in protein, vitamins, and minerals. Finally, the pods that are too old and tough to be eaten like green beans are employed as a snack—slit open and the sweet, frothy, white pulp sucked out.

Perhaps the most innovative and provocative use of this already multi-purpose species is to treat water and wastewater. The protein found in moringa seeds can be used to settle silt and other contaminants. Research in Africa has disclosed that it can replace alum, a normally imported and expensive material. The water still needs a final filtration but the seeds make the process easier and more complete, while extending the useful life of water filters. This could be of major significance where water-borne diseases are prevalent and where central water treatment systems are creaky or nonexistent (National Research Council, 2006).

The 20 chapters of this book cover a wide array of topics on moringa, from seedling to fruit to global market as its theme.

Literature Cited

Fahey, J.W. (2005). Moringa oleifera: A Review of the Medical Evidence for Its Nutritional, Therapeutic, and Prophylactic Properties. Part 1. Trees for Life Journal 1, 5.

http://www.tfljournal.org/article.php/20051201124931586.

Fahey, J.W. (2017). Moringa oleifera: a review of the medicinal potential. Acta Hortic. 1158, 209-224. DOI: 10.17660/ActaHortic.2017.1158.25.

Foidl N., Makkar N.P.S., and Becker K. (2001). The potential of Moringa oleifera for agricultural and industrial uses. In: Fuglie, L.J. (editor). The Miracle tree – the multiple attributes of Moringa. Church World Service, Dakar, Senegal, 2001; pp. 45-76.

Fuglie, L.J. (1999). The Miracle Tree: Moringa oleifera: Natural Nutrition for the Tropics. Church World Service, Dakar. 68 pp.

Fuglie, L.J. 2001. The Miracle Tree: The Multiple Attributes of Moringa, 172 pp.

Marcu, M.G. (2005). Miracle Tree. KOS Health Publications. La Canada, California. 171 p.

National Research Council. (2006). Moringa. Lost Crops of Africa. Vol. II: Vegetables. The National Academies Press, Washington, D.C. pp. 246-267.

Odee, D.W., Muluvi, G.M., Machua, J., Olson, M.E., and Changwony, M. (2001). Domestication of moringa species in Kenya. In: Development Potential for Moringa Products. Workshop proceedings. 29 Oct – 2 Nov 2001, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

Palada, M.C. (1996). Moringa (Moringa oleifera Lam.): A versatile tree crop with horticultural potential in the subtropical United States. HortScience 31, 794-797.

Palada, M.C., and Ebert, A.W. (2015). Moringa (Drumstick). Chapter 7, pp. 193-242 in Handbook of Vegetables, Vol. III. K.V. Peter and P. Hazra (eds). Studium Press LLC, Houston, Texas, USA.

Ramachandran, C., Peter, K.V., and Gopalakrishnan, P.K. (1980). Drumstick (Moringa oleifera): A multipurpose Indian vegetable. Econ. Bot. 34, 276-283.

Trees for Life. (2012). Moringa Book.

Villafuerte, L.R., and Villafuerte-Abonal, L. (2009). Moringa – Malunggay Philippines. Apples of Gold Publishing, a division of East Asia Outsourcing & Marketing Services, Singapore.

Chapter 2

Introduction to the Moringa Family: Origin, Distribution and Biodiversity

Mark E. Olson

Moringa oleifera perfectly illustrates our incomplete knowledge of the biological world. This incredibly useful tree has been the subject of much attention and research, as this volume attests. Yet M. oleifera is only one of thirteen known species of Moringa, the sole genus in the plant family Moringaceae. The multitude of uses for M. oleifera suggests that the other species of Moringa could be fertile ground for finding more nutritious leaves, more effective flocculants, or unanticipated new uses. However, most of these species are very poorly known and have never been studied from an applied point of view. To put Moringa oleifera in context, I will outline the relationship of the Moringa Family to the rest of the flowering plants and discuss the relationship of the species of Moringa to each other, before giving a brief description and photographs of all the known species.

The Relatives of Moringa

The relationships of Moringa to other families of plants have long been controversial (Narayana and Parvathi, 1978; Rao et al., 1983; Dutt et al., 1984; Ronse de Craene et al., 1998). When the Swedish biologist Linnaeus named M. oleifera in 1785, he thought that the tree was a member of the Legume Family. This was an easy mistake: the bilaterally symmetrical flowers of M. oleifera superficially resemble legume flowers, and many legumes have pinnate leaves similar to those of Moringa. Some prominent botanists continued to hold this view until the mid-1800s, while others advocated placement near the Violet Family. Based on its long woody pods and winged seeds, still other botanists declared Moringa to be a member of the Bignonia Family (see Jumelle, 1930, for further discussion). Rodman (1991) identifies no less than fifteen 20th century botanical classifications that differ with respect to the position of the Moringa Family and its putative allies. This long-standing confusion resulted from the strange combination of flower, leaf, and fruit characteristics of Moringa that vaguely resemble those in several families but don’t show obvious similarities that indicate relationship.

With the advent of studies that infer relationships between organisms based on their DNA, it became clear that Moringaceae is one of the 15 or so families that produce mustard oils (glucosinolates). These studies show that nearly all plants that produce mustard oils are related (Chase et al., 1993; Rodman et al., 1998; Karol et al., 1999). Some of these families include the Mustard Family (Brassicaceae), the Caper Family (Capparaceae), the Nasturtium Family (Tropaeolaceae), and the Papaya Family (Caricaceae). In all of these studies, Moringaceae have appeared to be most closely related to the Papaya Family. Based on morphological details of the plants, no one had ever suspected that these two families were so closely related (Olson, 2002a). This unexpected result immediately spurred a search for morphological and anatomical similarities between the families that had gone unnoticed. Carlquist (1998) and Olson and Carlquist (2001) found strong similarity in the wood anatomy of some Moringaceae and Caricaceae. The strange stalked glands found on the leaves and stems of Moringa appear to have their counterparts in Caricaceae, and the papaya tree type growth habit is found in both families (as in Moringa drouhardii, Olson, 2002a). All of the genera of the Papaya Family, including the only African member, Cylicomorpha, are more closely related to each other than they are to Moringa. Likewise, all species of Moringa are more closely related to each other than to any members of the Papaya Family. This means that though the Moringa and Papaya Families are indeed related, they are distinct evolutionary lineages and thus it is valid to consider them as distinct families.

Relationships within Moringaceae

Closely related species often resemble one another more closely than distantly related ones. As a result, for improving domesticated plants and animals it is useful to know about the relationships between species. For example, it allows us to answer the question "Which species are most closely related to Moringa oleifera and what properties do they share?" Based on studies of DNA sequences, the external form of the plants, as well as their anatomy (Olson, 2002b), we can divide the family into three main groups. Instead of a branching diagram of parent-children relationships, the diverging lines in the genealogy of a plant family show the evolutionary relationship of species to one another. Such a diagram is known as a phylogeny. Moringa oleifera and two other species share the slender tree habit and form a group of related species in the phylogeny (Fig. 1). The four massive water storing bottle trees in the family do not form a tidy group in the phylogeny but we can group them together based on their habit. The remaining species span a remarkable array of shapes and sizes and are all close relatives from northeastern Africa.

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Figure 1. Relationships of Moringa species to one another, based on Olson, 2002b.

I give a brief description of each species of Moringa here, starting with M. oleifera and the slender trees.

Slender Trees

(M. oleifera, M. concanensis, M. peregrina)

These three species are principally Asian. They have cream-colored flowers that may have green or pink blotches on them. The wood of the stems and roots of adult trees has less water storage tissue than the other Moringa species. The cotyledons of seedlings remain in the seed upon germination, and the seedling quickly forms a fat tuber with a slender stem. The plant may die back to the tuber for many years before finally forming a permanent stem.

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Figure 2. Moringa oleifera. Shown here is a field of the PKM1 variety being grown in Tamil Nadu, India. PKM1 is a variety that was selected for its very long young pods, which are used in many dishes in India. Because of its fast growth and abundant fruiting in its first year, PKM is often grown as an annual.

Moringa oleifera (commonly and incorrectly known under a variety of other names, the most common of which are M. pterygosperma and M. aptera, see Olson, 2010 and Olson, 2013) is apparently native to northwestern India and adjacent Pakistan, though clear documentation of the native range is lacking. The native range is usually cited as sub-Himalayan valleys, i.e., the warm, seasonally dry lowlands just south of the Himalayas. Old herbarium sheets and references cite wild trees (Haines, 1922), but I have not seen any recent collections from wild populations, and recent publications citing wild populations do not explain how wild