Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes and By-Products: Recent Trends, Innovations and Sustainability Challenges

Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes and By-Products: Recent Trends, Innovations and Sustainability Challenges addresses the waste and by-product valorization of fruits and vegetables, beverages, nuts and seeds, dairy and seafood.

The book focuses its coverage on bioactive recovery, health benefits, biofuel production and environment issues, as well as recent technological developments surrounding state of the art of food waste management and innovation. The book also presents tools for value chain analysis and explores future sustainability challenges. In addition, the book offers theoretical and experimental information used to investigate different aspects of the valorization of agri-food wastes and by-products.

Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes and By-Products: Recent Trends, Innovations and Sustainability Challenges will be a great resource for food researchers, including those working in food loss or waste, agricultural processing, and engineering, food scientists, technologists, agricultural engineers, and students and professionals working on sustainable food production and effective management of food loss, wastes and by-products.

• Covers recent trends, innovations, and sustainability challenges related to food wastes and by-products valorization
• Explores various recovery processes, the functionality of targeted bioactive compounds, and green processing technologies
• Presents emerging technologies for the valorization of agri-food wastes and by-products
• Highlights potential industrial applications of food wastes and by-products to support circular economy concepts

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Aug 25, 2021
• ISBN: 9780128242605

Book preview

Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes and By-Products

Recent Trends, Innovations, and Sustainability Challenges

Edited by

Rajeev Bhat

ERA-Chair for Food By-products Valorisation Technologies (VALORTECH), Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia, European Union

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

List of contributors

Foreword

Preface

Introduction

Chapter 1. Sustainability challenges in the valorization of agri-food wastes and by-products

Abstract

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Wastes and by-products—global scenario

1.3 Food industrial wastes and by-products

1.4 Food industry wastes and renewable energy production

1.5 Composting of agri-food wastes

1.6 Bioactive compounds and bioactivity

1.7 Wastes and by-products as food and livestock feed

1.8 Bioplastics and green composites

1.9 Sustainable green processing technologies

1.10 Regulatory issues

1.11 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

Acknowledgment

References

Further Reading

Chapter 2. Valorization of industrial by-products and waste from tropical fruits for the recovery of bioactive compounds, recent advances, and future perspectives

Abstract

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Isolation and extraction methods of bioactive compounds from tropical fruit by-products and wastes

2.3 Fermentation to obtain bioactive compounds from tropical fruits

2.4 Possible uses of by-products and wastes in the food industry

2.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Chapter 3. Bioactive compounds of fruit by-products as potential prebiotics

Abstract

3.1 Introduction

3.2 World crop production: focus on the fruit scenario

3.3 Fruit by-products as functional compounds and their relationship with gut microbiota

3.4 Dietary fibers and phenolics in fruit by-products as bioactive compounds

3.5 Effect of fruit by-products on growth of beneficial microorganisms and their folate production

3.6 Fruit by-products and gut microbiota: phenolic metabolites and short-chain fatty acids

3.7 Potential biological effects of bioactive compounds from fruit by-products: antioxidant and antiinflammatory approaches

3.8 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 4. Valorization of fruit and vegetable waste for bioactive pigments: extraction and utilization

Abstract

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Anthocyanins

4.3 Betalains

4.4 Carotenoids

4.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Chapter 5. Valuable bioactives from vegetable wastes

Abstract

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Valorization of vegetable wastes and byproducts

5.3 Extraction of phytobioactives

5.4 Sustainability through preservation of vegetable waste and byproducts

5.5 Potential applications of vegetable wastes and vegetable byproducts

5.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Chapter 6. Fruit byproducts as alternative ingredients for bakery products

Abstract

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Fruit industry

6.3 Functional foods

6.4 Bakery products

6.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 7. Fruit and vegetable by-products: novel ingredients for a sustainable society

Abstract

Graphical abstract

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Bioactive molecules from fruit and vegetable by-products

7.3 Sustained valorization of fruits and vegetable by-products

7.4 Innovative drying techniques and extraction methods for fruit and vegetable by-products

7.5 Innovations and sustainable food ingredients

7.6 Strategic road map for sustainable utilization of by-products

7.7 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 8. Current trends on the valorization of waste fractions for the recovery of alkaloids and polyphenols: case study of guarana

Abstract

Abbreviations

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Guarana (Paullinia cupana)

8.3 Emerging processing strategies to recover alkaloids and polyphenols

8.4 Current trends and perspectives: biorefinery approach applied for the integral use of guarana

8.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

8.6 Conflict of interest

References

Chapter 9. Coffee waste: a source of valuable technologies for sustainable development

Abstract

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Coffee beans: chemical composition and structure

9.3 Coffee production and generated waste

9.4 Strategies used to valorize coffee waste

9.5 Bioproducts for food and pharmaceutical industry applications from coffee waste

9.6 Bioenergy production from coffee waste

9.7 Materials from coffee waste

9.8 Agricultural applications

9.9 Miscellaneous

9.10 Conclusion and future perspectives

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 10. Valorization of coffee wastes for effective recovery of value-added bio-based products: an aim to enhance the sustainability and productivity of the coffee industry

Abstract

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Valorization of coffee wastes

10.3 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Chapter 11. Valorization of tea waste for multifaceted applications: a step toward green and sustainable development

Abstract

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Biomass sources

11.3 Biomass valorization

11.4 Tea waste biomass: source, properties, and constituents

11.5 Value-added products from tea waste

11.6 Multifaceted applications of valorized waste tea products

11.7 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Chapter 12. Various conversion techniques for the recovery of value-added products from tea waste

Abstract

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Process integration for setting up a waste biorefinery

12.3 Tea waste and its worldwide availability

12.4 Physicochemical properties of tea waste

12.5 Biofuel and bioenergy production

12.6 Solid fuel

12.7 Tea waste-based biorefinery and production of value-added product

12.8 Rules/regulations concerning the safety of valorization of tea wastes

12.9 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Chapter 13. Cocoa: Beyond chocolate, a promising material for potential value-added products

Abstract

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Chemical composition of the cocoa pod

13.3 Cocoa process and its by-products and waste

13.4 Valorization of cocoa by-products and waste

13.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 14. Nuts by-products: the Latin American contribution

Abstract

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Impact of nut by-products

14.3 Nutritional and functional nut by-products

14.4 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Chapter 15. Valorization of seeds of the genera Cucumis, Citrullus, and Cucurbita

Abstract

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Cucurbitaceae family

15.3 Seed composition

15.4 Bioactive compounds

15.5 Valorization of seeds

15.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 16. Valorization of grape seeds

Abstract

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Characterization and content of grape seeds

16.3 Extraction of phenolic compounds

16.4 Extraction of oil

16.5 Use as a biosorbent

16.6 Application of seed extracts in foods

16.7 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Chapter 17. Seed wastes and byproducts: reformulation of meat products

Abstract

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Seeds and byproducts as fat replacers in meat products

17.3 Bioactive compounds from seeds for use in meat products

17.4 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Chapter 18. Recent advances and emerging trends in the utilization of dairy by-products/wastes

Abstract

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Dairy industrial wastes

18.3 Environmental impacts

18.4 Advanced biotechnological approaches in utilizing dairy wastes

18.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Chapter 19. Whey: generation, recovery, and use of a relevant by-product

Abstract

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Cheese manufacture

19.3 Characteristics of whey

19.4 Main destinations of whey

19.5 Whey recovery and purification

19.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Chapter 20. Valorization of dairy by-products for functional and nutritional applications: recent trends toward the milk fat globule membrane

Abstract

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Milk composition

20.3 Main by-products of the dairy industry: whey, skimmed milk, and buttermilk

20.4 New trends toward the valorization of buttermilk: specific interests in the milk fat globule membrane

20.5 Wastewaters from processing, cleaning, and sanitary processes

20.6 Conclusions and future outlook

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 21. Sustainable utilization of gelatin from animal-based agri–food waste for the food industry and pharmacology

Abstract

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Socioeconomic and environmental impact of agri–food waste

21.3 Valorization of agri–food waste

21.4 Gelatin: a value-added product from animal-derived waste

21.5 Usage of animal-originated gelatin in the food industry

21.6 Usage of animal-originated gelatin in pharmacology

21.7 Challenges to animal-derived gelatin in the food and pharmacology industries

21.8 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Chapter 22. New food strategies to generate sustainable beef

Abstract

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Influence of the feed composition on the quality of beef

22.3 Case study

22.4 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 23. Valorization of wastes and by-products from the meat industry

Abstract

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Value-added food ingredients

23.3 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Further reading

Chapter 24. Biowaste eggshells as efficient electrodes for energy storage

Abstract

24.1 Introduction

24.2 Valorization of biowaste chicken eggshells

24.3 Applications

24.4 Eggshells as efficient electrodes for energy storage

24.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Chapter 25. Recovery and application of bioactive proteins from poultry by-products

Abstract

25.1 Introduction

25.2 Generation and disposal of chicken industry waste

25.3 Nutritional value of poultry by-products

25.4 Bioactive proteins from poultry by-products: potential applications

25.5 Techniques for obtaining bioactive proteins from by-products of the chicken industry: recent trends

25.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Chapter 26. Valorization of seafood processing by-products

Abstract

26.1 Introduction

26.2 The position of by-products in global fisheries and seafood industry

26.3 Recovery of seafood by-products

26.4 Valorization of seafood by-products

26.5 Improvements in the management of seafood by-products

26.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Chapter 27. Utilization of seafood-processing by-products for the development of value-added food products

Abstract

27.1 Introduction

27.2 Seafood-processing by-products definition and statistics

27.3 Fundamental components of seafood-processing by-products

27.4 Conclusion, opportunities, and future trends

References

Chapter 28. Valorization of seafood industry waste for gelatin production: facts and gaps

Abstract

28.1 Introduction

28.2 Amounts of seafood waste

28.3 Valorization strategies for seafood waste

28.4 The importance of aquatic gelatin for academia and industry

28.5 Mind the gaps: fish gelatin from waste

28.6 Possible solutions

28.7 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Chapter 29. Effective valorization of aquaculture by-products: bioactive peptides and their application in aquafeed

Abstract

29.1 Introduction

29.2 Fish protein hydrolysates and peptides

29.3 Sources of aquaculture by-products

29.4 Handling and processing of seafood by-products for production of protein hydrolysates and peptides

29.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 30. Sustainability of agri-food supply chains through innovative waste management models

Abstract

30.1 Introduction

30.2 Food wastage as a hurdle for global security

30.3 Global food loss scenario

30.4 Food waste management through valorization: global efforts

30.5 The case of an emerging economy: food loss and reduction strategies in India

30.6 Possible interventions and the way forward for food waste valorization

30.7 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Chapter 31. Food waste generation and management: household sector

Abstract

31.1 Introduction

31.2 Food waste overview

31.3 Food waste policy

31.4 Food waste management

31.5 Food waste management incentives

31.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 32. Sustainable valorization of food-processing industry by-products: challenges and opportunities to obtain bioactive compounds

Abstract

32.1 Introduction

32.2 Food processing and waste production

32.3 Bioactives in food waste: chemical classes and activities

32.4 Challenges in extraction: searching for green and sustainable separation of natural products from waste

32.5 Are green extraction techniques cost-effective processes?

32.6 Opportunities for new valuable compounds

32.7 New business and marketing concepts for recovered bioactives

32.8 Nanocellulose for packaging—biomaterials production

32.9 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Chapter 33. Revitalization of wastewater from the edible oil industry

Abstract

Abbreviations

33.1 Introduction

33.2 Sources of wastewater

33.3 Techniques for treatment of wastewater

33.4 Physiochemical treatments

33.5 Potential end products from wastewater treatments

33.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 34. Valorization of cotton wastes for agricultural and industrial applications: present status and future prospects

Abstract

34.1 Introduction

34.2 Cotton wastes and the need for their valorization

34.3 Composition of cotton plants

34.4 Classification of cotton wastes

34.5 A conceptual model to utilize on-farm cotton wastes

34.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Chapter 35. Advanced techniques for recovery of active compounds from food by-products

Abstract

35.1 Introduction

35.2 Conventional extraction techniques for food waste valorization

35.3 Nonconventional extraction techniques for food waste valorization

35.4 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 36. Application of combined extraction and microextraction techniques for food waste

Abstract

36.1 Introduction

36.2 Microextraction techniques

36.3 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Chapter 37. Superabsorbent materials from industrial food and agricultural wastes and by-products

Abstract

37.1 Introduction

37.2 Natural superabsorbent materials

37.3 Biodegradability of superabsorbent materials

37.4 Strategies to improve superabsorbent properties in protein-based SAB

37.5 Benefits of natural-based superabsorbent materials

37.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 38. Natural deep eutectic solvents for sustainable extraction of pigments and antioxidants from agri-processing waste

Abstract

Abbreviations

38.1 Introduction

38.2 Natural deep eutectic solvents

38.3 Natural pigments from agri-processing waste

38.4 Other antioxidant compounds from agri-processing waste

38.5 Toxicity of NADES

38.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 39. Thermochemical and biochemical treatment strategies for resource recovery from agri-food industry wastes

Abstract

39.1 Introduction

39.2 An overview on agri-food industry waste

39.3 Thermochemical conversion of agri-food industry waste

39.4 Biochemical conversion of agri-food industry wastes

39.5 Challenges and opportunities

39.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 40. Bioconversion of agri-food waste and by-products through insects: a new valorization opportunity

Abstract

40.1 Introduction: the Circular Economy concept for agro-food waste reduction and how insects fit in it

40.2 Insect species and rearing substrates

40.3 Insect processing

40.4 Insect applications

40.5 Legal barriers to insects as biotools in circular economy in European Union

40.6 Conclusion and future perspectives

References

Chapter 41. Sustainability of food industry wastes: a microbial approach

Abstract

41.1 Introduction

41.2 Types of residual biomass generated

41.3 Microbial valorization of wastes

41.4 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Chapter 42. Polyphenols from food processing byproducts and their microbiota–gut–brain axis-based health benefits

Abstract

42.1 Introduction

42.2 Sources of byproduct polyphenols from food industries

42.3 Structure and class of byproduct polyphenols

42.4 Extraction of polyphenols from food processing and agricultural byproducts

42.5 Applications of byproducts’ polyphenols

42.6 Gut fermentation of polyphenols and their health benefits

42.7 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Chapter 43. Agro-waste-derived silica nanoparticles (Si-NPs) as biofertilizer

Abstract

43.1 Introduction

43.2 Natural sources, extraction methods, and physicochemical properties

43.3 Rice husk-derived SiO2 nanoparticles

43.4 Characterizations of silica nanoparticles

43.5 Advantages and applications of silica nanoparticles in agriculture

43.6 Fertilizers

43.7 Delivery vectors

43.8 Soil water retention capacity

43.9 Remediation of heavy metals and hazardous chemicals

43.10 Weeds, pests, and pathogens management

43.11 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 44. Supply of biomass and agricultural waste for promoting low-carbon business-ecosystem

Abstract

44.1 Introduction

44.2 The concept of circular economy

44.3 Sustainable supply chain and reverse logistics

44.4 Entrepreneurial ecosystems in rural areas

44.5 A case study: promoting low-carbon business ecosystem in a rural district

44.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Chapter 45. Agricultural waste valorization for sustainable biofuel production

Abstract

45.1 Introduction

45.2 Production of biofuels from lignocellulosic waste

45.3 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Chapter 46. Valorization of fruit processing by-product streams into integrated biorefinery concepts: extraction of value-added compounds and bioconversion to chemicals

Abstract

46.1 Introduction

46.2 Organic acids production

46.3 Enzymes

46.4 Biopolymers

46.5 Recovery of antioxidants and essential oils from fruits

46.6 Conclusion and future outlook

References

Chapter 47. Recovery and valorization of CO2 from the organic wastes fermentation

Abstract

47.1 Introduction

47.2 Overview of organic wastes production

47.3 Organic wastes reuse technologies: ethanol and biogas production

47.4 CO2 valorization technologies

47.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

References

Chapter 48. Valorization of agrifood wastes and byproducts through nanobiotechnology

Abstract

48.1 Introduction

48.2 Agrifood wastes: international status

48.3 Bottleneck in conventional processes of agrifood waste valorization

48.4 Valorization process by nanobiotechnology

48.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges

Acknowledgment

References

Index

Copyright

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List of contributors

Rana Muhammad Aadil,     National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Samuel Chetachukwu Adegoke,     Food and Nutritional Sciences Program, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, United States

Aziz Ahmad

Biological Security and Sustainability Research Group, Faculty of Science and Marine Environment, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, Malaysia

Centre for Fundamental and Continuing Education, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, Malaysia

Talha Ahmad,     College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China

Muneer Ahmad Magry

Faculty of Science Engineering and Built Environment, Deakin University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Universal Business School, Kushivili, Karjat, Maharashtra

Waqar Ahmed,     National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Elif Tuğçe Aksun Tümerkan,     Department of Food Processing, Vocational High School, University of Ankara Yildirim Beyazit, Ankara, Turkey

Katariina Ala-Rämi,     Kerttu Saalasti Institute, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland

Marcela Albuquerque Cavalcanti de Albuquerque

Department of Food and Experimental Nutrition, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

FoRC, Food Research Center, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

Tânia Gonçalves Albuquerque

Department of Food and Nutrition, National Institute of Health Dr Ricardo Jorge, I.P., Lisbon, Portugal

REQUIMTE-LAQV/Faculdade de Farmácia da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal

Instituto Universitário Egas Moniz, Almada, Portugal

Maria Alexandri,     Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece

Estefanía Álvarez-Castillo,     Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Seville, Escuela Politécnica Superior, Seville, Spain

Rita Carneiro Alves,     REQUIMTE-LAQV/Faculdade de Farmácia da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal

H.V. Annegowda,     Department of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, Sri Adichunchanagiri College of Pharmacy, Adichunchanagiri University, Mandya, India

A. Ascenso,     iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal

J. Fernando Ayala-Zavala,     Research Center for Food and Development A.C., Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico

Blanca E. Barragán-Huerta,     Department of Environmental Systems Engineering, National School of Biological Sciences-Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City, Mexico

Barbara Ruivo Valio Barretti,     Federal University of Paraná, Department of Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology, Centro Politécnico, Curitiba, Brazil

Carlos Bengoechea,     Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Seville, Escuela Politécnica Superior, Seville, Spain

M. Bento,     Italagro SA, Lezíria das Cortes, Castanheira do Ribatejo, Portugal

Rajeev Bhat,     ERA-Chair for Food By-products Valorisation Technologies (VALORTECH), Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia, European Union

Brij Bhushan,     Department of Chemistry, Graphic Era University, Dehradun, India

Nilutpal Bhuyan

Department of Energy, Tezpur University, Tezpur, India

D.C.B. Girls' College, Jorhat, India

D. Blaise,     Division of Crop Production, ICAR (Central Institute for Cotton Research), Nagpur, India

Marianne Su-Ling Brooks,     Department of Process Engineering and Applied Science, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada

Augusta Caligiani,     Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parma, Italy

Rocio Campos-Vega,     Postgraduate Program in Food of the Center of the Republic (PROPAC), Research and Graduate Studies in Food Science, School of Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Santiago de Querétaro, Mexico

M. Carvalheiro,     iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal

Carlos Pasqualin Cavalheiro,     Laboratory of Meat and Meat Products Inspection and Technology (LabCarne), Federal University of Bahia (UFBA), Salvador, Brazil

S.M. Ceballos-Duque,     Instituto de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia

Saravanan Chakkaravarthi,     Department of Basic and Applied Sciences, National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and Management, Sonipat, India

Wee Sim Choo,     School of Science, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia

Nabajit Dev Choudhury,     Department of Energy Engineering, Assam Science and Technology University, Guwahati, India

Wei Chean Chuah,     Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia

Ng Lee Chuen,     Faculty of Fisheries and Food Science, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, Malaysia

Fook Yee Chye,     Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia

A. Costa,     iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal

Helena S. Costa

Department of Food and Nutrition, National Institute of Health Dr Ricardo Jorge, I.P., Lisbon, Portugal

REQUIMTE-LAQV/Faculdade de Farmácia da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal

Adriano Gomes da Cruz,     Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Rio de Janeiro (IFRJ), Department of Food, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Maurício Costa Alves da Silva,     Laboratory of Meat and Meat Products Inspection and Technology (LabCarne), Federal University of Bahia (UFBA), Salvador, Brazil

Íris Braz da Silva Araújo,     Management and Agroindustrial Technology Department, Federal University of Paraíba, Bananeiras, Brazil

Julio Cesar de Carvalho,     Federal University of Paraná, Department of Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology, Centro Politécnico, Curitiba, Brazil

Igor Ucella Dantas de Medeiros,     Department of Biochemical and Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

Alejandra de Moreno de LeBlanc,     CERELA-CONICET, Centro de Referência para Lactobacilos, San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina

Simone Lorena Quitério de Souza,     Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Rio de Janeiro (IFRJ), Department of Food, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Gargi Dey,     School of Biotechnology, Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology (KIIT University), Bhubaneswar, India

Rerisson do Nascimento Alves,     Agri-food Technology Postgraduate Program, Federal University of Paraiba, Bananeiras, Brazil

Elisa Dufoo-Hurtado,     Postgraduate Program in Food of the Center of the Republic (PROPAC), Research and Graduate Studies in Food Science, School of Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Santiago de Querétaro, Mexico

Salma A. Enríquez-Valencia,     Research Center for Food and Development A.C., Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico

A.C. Faria-Silva,     iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal

Manuel Felix,     Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Seville, Escuela Politécnica Superior, Seville, Spain

Maximilian Fichtner,     Helmholtz Institute Ulm for Electrochemical Energy Storage (HIU), Ulm, Germany

Irina Fierascu

National Institute for Research & Development in Chemistry and Petrochemistry—ICECHIM Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

University of Agronomic Science and Veterinary Medicine, Bucharest, Romania

Radu Claudiu Fierascu

National Institute for Research & Development in Chemistry and Petrochemistry—ICECHIM Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Department of Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials, Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Scott W. Fowler

School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, United States

Institute Bobby, 8 Allée des Orangers, Cap d’Ail, France

Bernadette Dora Gombossy de Melo Franco

Department of Food and Experimental Nutrition, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

FoRC, Food Research Center, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

Maria Patricia Guerrero Garcia-Ortega,     CTAEX, Badajoz, Spain

Mohd Sabri Mohd Ghazali,     Faculty of Science and Marine Environment, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, Malaysia

L.M. Gonçalves,     iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal

Almudena González González,     Metanogenia S.L. Edificio Guadiana, Biodiversidad, Badajoz, Spain

Gustavo A. González-Aguilar,     Research Center for Food and Development A.C., Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico

Anil H. Gore

Fluorescence Spectroscopy Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Shivaji University, Kolhapur, Kolhapur, India

Tarsadia Institute of Chemical Science, Uka Tarsadia University, Bardoli, Gujarat, India

Luna Goswami,     School of Biotechnology, Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology (KIIT University), Bhubaneswar, India

Athanasia M. Goula,     Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Environment, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece

Antonio Guerrero,     Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Seville, Escuela Politécnica Superior, Seville, Spain

Jonas Toledo Guimarães,     Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Rio de Janeiro (IFRJ), Department of Food, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Datta B. Gunjal,     Fluorescence Spectroscopy Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Shivaji University, Kolhapur, Kolhapur, India

Paulina Gutiérrez-Macías,     Department of Environmental Systems Engineering, National School of Biological Sciences-Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City, Mexico

Muhamad Fairus Noor Hassim,     Biological Security and Sustainability Research Group, Faculty of Science and Marine Environment, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, Malaysia

Ana M. Herrero,     Department of Products, ICTAN - CSIC, Madrid, Spain

B.K.K.K. Jinadasa

Analytical Chemistry Laboratory (ACL), National Aquatic Resources Research & Development Agency (NARA), Colombo, Sri Lanka

Department of Food Science & Technology, Faculty of Livestock, Fisheries & Nutrition, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka, Makandura, Gonawila (NWP), Sri Lanka

Rupam Kataki,     Department of Energy, Tezpur University, Tezpur, India

Moazzam Rafiq Khan,     National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Timo Kikas,     Chair of Biosystems Engineering, Institute of Technology, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia

Marcela Kloth,     Federal Technological University of Paraná, Department of Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology, Ponta Grossa, Brazil

Govind B. Kolekar,     Fluorescence Spectroscopy Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Shivaji University, Kolhapur, Kolhapur, India

Konstantina Kourmentza

Department of Chemical & Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, United Kingdom

Green Chemicals Beacon of Excellence, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, United Kingdom

Apostolis Koutinas,     Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece

Melinda Krebsz,     School of Chemistry, Monash University, Victoria, Australia

Tharaka Rama Krishna C. Doddapaneni,     Chair of Biosystems Engineering, Institute of Technology, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia

Sonia Kumar,     Department of Process Engineering and Applied Science, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada

Luiz Gustavo Lacerda,     State University of Ponta Grossa, Ponta Grossa, Brazil

Jean Guy LeBlanc,     CERELA-CONICET, Centro de Referência para Lactobacilos, San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina

Ulla Lehtinen

Kerttu Saalasti Institute, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland

Oulu Business School, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland

Giulia Leni,     Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parma, Italy

Boon Fung Leong,     Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia

Jade M. Long,     Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States

Christelle Lopez,     INRAE, BIA, Nantes, France

Leticia X. López-Martínez,     CONACYT-Research Center for Food and Development A.C., Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico

Ivan Luzardo-Ocampo,     Postgraduate Program in Food of the Center of the Republic (PROPAC), Research and Graduate Studies in Food Science, School of Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Santiago de Querétaro, Mexico

Gabriela A. Macedo,     Bioprocesses Laboratory, School of Food Engineering, University of Campinas, Campinas, SP, Brazil

Sergi Maicas,     Department of Microbiology and Ecology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain

Sofia Maina,     Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece

Pulak Majumder

Department of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, Sri Adichunchanagiri College of Pharmacy, Adichunchanagiri University, Mandya, India

Department of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, Sri Adichunchanagiri College of Pharmacy, Adichunchanagiri University B. G Nagara, Mandya, India

Ma. Elena Maldonado-Celis,     Escuela de Nutrición y Dietética, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia

M. Marques,     LAQV-REQUIMTE, Chemistry Department, FCT/Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal

J. Marto,     iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal

José Juan Mateo,     Department of Microbiology and Ecology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain

Manickam Minakshi,     Engineering and Energy, Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia

Vicente A. Mirón-Mérida

School of Food Science & Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom

School of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom

Anand Mohan,     Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States

Antonio Moreda-Piñeiro,     Trace Element, Spectroscopy and Speciation Group (GETEE), Strategic Grouping in Materials (AEMAT), Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Bromatology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain

Miriane Moreira Fernandes Santos,     Food Science and Technology Postgraduate Program, Federal University of Paraiba, João Pessoa, Brazil

Vaibhav M. Naik,     Fluorescence Spectroscopy Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Shivaji University, Kolhapur, Kolhapur, India

Sapna A. Narula,     School of Management Studies, Nalanda University, Bihar, India

Rumi Narzari,     Department of Energy, Tezpur University, Tezpur, India

Arunima Nayak,     Department of Chemistry, Graphic Era University, Dehradun, India

Mehdi Nikoo,     Department of Pathobiology and Quality Control, Artemia and Aquaculture Research Institute, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran

Omkar S. Nille,     Fluorescence Spectroscopy Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Shivaji University, Kolhapur, Kolhapur, India

Patrícia Nunes,     University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal

M. Beatriz P.P. Oliveira,     REQUIMTE-LAQV/Faculdade de Farmácia da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal

B. Dave Oomah,     Summerland Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Summerland Canada

A. Paiva,     LAQV-REQUIMTE, Chemistry Department, FCT/Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal

Sandeep K. Panda,     School of Biotechnology, Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology (KIIT University), Bhubaneswar, India

Harris Papapostolou,     Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece

Tibor Pasinszki,     Department of Chemistry, School of Pure Sciences, College of Engineering, Science & Technology, Fiji National University, Suva, Fiji

Akshay S. Patil,     Fluorescence Spectroscopy Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Shivaji University, Kolhapur, Kolhapur, India

Fábio Anderson Pereira Da Silva

Management and Agroindustrial Technology Department, Federal University of Paraíba, Bananeiras, Brazil

Food Science and Technology Postgraduate Program, Federal University of Paraiba, João Pessoa, Brazil

Chanathip Pharino,     Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand

Tatiana Colombo Pimentel,     Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Paraná (IFPR), Campus Paranavaí, Brazil

Gustavo Luis de Paiva Anciens Ramos

Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Rio de Janeiro (IFRJ), Department of Food, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Fluminense Federal University (UFF), Rio de Janeiro-Brasil, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

H.M. Ribeiro,     iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal

C. Odín Rodríguez-Nava,     Department of Environmental Systems Engineering, National School of Biological Sciences-Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City, Mexico

Claudia Ruiz-Capillas,     Department of Products, ICTAN - CSIC, Madrid, Spain

Susana Marta Isay Saad

FoRC, Food Research Center, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

Department of Biochemical and Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

Niharendu Saha,     Department of Mechanical Engineering, Assam Engineering College, Guwahati, India

Amy Yi Hsan Saik,     Department of Pre-clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kajang, Malaysia

Ruprekha Saikia,     Department of Energy, Tezpur University, Tezpur, India

Ádina L. Santana

Food Science Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States

Bioprocesses Laboratory, School of Food Engineering, University of Campinas, Campinas, SP, Brazil

S. Savitha,     Division of Crop Production, ICAR (Central Institute for Cotton Research), Nagpur, India

Philip A. Schneider,     Engineering and Energy, Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia

Dibyakanta Seth,     Department of Food Process Engineering, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Rourkela, India

Stefano Sforza,     Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parma, Italy

Muhammad Asim Shabbir,     National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Elwira Sieniawska,     Department of Pharmacognosy, Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland

Mafalda Alexandra Silva

Department of Food and Nutrition, National Institute of Health Dr Ricardo Jorge, I.P., Lisbon, Portugal

REQUIMTE-LAQV/Faculdade de Farmácia da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal

Vida Šimat,     University Department of Marine Studies, University of Split, Split, Croatia

P. Simões,     LAQV-REQUIMTE, Chemistry Department, FCT/Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal

S. Simões,     iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal

Carlos Ricardo Soccol,     Federal University of Paraná, Department of Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology, Centro Politécnico, Curitiba, Brazil

Alessandra Cristine Novak Sydney,     Federal Technological University of Paraná, Department of Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology, Ponta Grossa, Brazil

Eduardo Bittencourt Sydney,     Federal Technological University of Paraná, Department of Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology, Ponta Grossa, Brazil

Reza Tahergorabi,     Food and Nutritional Sciences Program, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, United States

Maria Tsiviki,     Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Environment, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece

Erminta Tsouko,     Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece

K. Velmourougane,     Division of Crop Production, ICAR (Central Institute for Cotton Research), Nagpur, India

Simone Maria Ribas Vendramel,     Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Rio de Janeiro (IFRJ), Department of Food, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Ravindra D. Waghmare,     Fluorescence Spectroscopy Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Shivaji University, Kolhapur, Kolhapur, India

V.N. Waghmare,     Division of Crop Production, ICAR (Central Institute for Cotton Research), Nagpur, India

Santad Wichienchot,     Center of Excellence in Functional Foods and Gastronomy, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla, Thailand

Adenise Lorenci Woiciechowski,     Federal University of Paraná, Department of Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology, Centro Politécnico, Curitiba, Brazil

Foreword

Martin Kranert, Solid Waste Management and Emissions, Institute for Sanitary Engineering, Water Quality and Solid Waste Management, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany

Climate protection and the efficient use of natural resources are among the challenges of this century, particularly in the context of increasing global economic development and a growing world population. The sustainable development goals of the United Nations and the European Green Deal of the European Union take up these challenges and set a framework and goals for sustainable development. Bioeconomy, which is now highly valued in many countries, can make a significant contribution to this. This includes in particular the transformation of an oil-based economy to an economy in which fossil resources are replaced by renewable raw materials and the recycling of organic residues and waste. It should be emphasized that the production of nonfossil-based products through the recycling and valorization of organic by-products and waste does not create competition with food production.

This book "Valorization of Agri-food Wastes and By-products: Recent Trends, Innovations, and Sustainability Challenges" takes up this important topic in this context regarding waste and by-products occurring during food production and processing. It covers a broad spectrum of valorization of waste and by-products in the production and processing of fruits and vegetables, nuts and seeds, in the beverage industry, and in the dairy, meat, poultry, and seafood industries. It also highlights opportunities and challenges related to waste management along the agri-food supply chains including those of households, innovative food waste treatment and recovery technologies, in the production of novel materials, biofuel production, new bioeconomic business systems, and climate change mitigation measures. It demonstrates current trends in research and development and gives an overview of the state-of-the art in food waste management and in the production of innovative products from organic residues and provides theoretical, experimental, and practical experience.

The topics are presented meticulously by global experts and scientists from all around the world. The publication of this book is well timed and will be an excellent source of information for all the scientists, technologists, and decision-makers working in the agri-food sector. In addition, this book is expected to be an important contribution for further development and understanding of the bioeconomy concepts. It will also be an excellent reference material for teaching undergraduate and postgraduate level students. All this makes this book a valuable source for science and practice.

This book has been excellently edited by Prof. Dr. Rajeev Bhat, an established expert in the field of agri-food technology. This book is timely published by Elsevier and I wish it a wide distribution and recognition.

Preface

Rajeev Bhat, ERA-Chair for Food (By-) Products Valorisation Technologies (VALORTECH), Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia, European Union

Globally, the entire agri-food system is witnessing decisive challenges pertinent to food security and sustainable food production. Of late, unwarranted pressure on our food system and the supply chain is being shown in countless ways. Global populations have been seriously affected by the increased impact of climate change, unsustainable food production, poverty and hunger issues, changing lifestyle and diet patterns, the upsurge in noncommunicable diseases, the increase in food loss and waste, the pandemic situation, that is, COVID-19, and much more. These circumstances have altered the basic socioeconomic–cultural interactions, thus radically affecting the normal day-to-day life. In this sense, a defined understanding of various resource nexuses and the interlinkages amongst the diversified natural resources (food–energy–water) within the food delivery/supply chains necessitate careful monitoring. Nevertheless, modern-day technological innovations are envisaged to undeniably penetrate all the related arenas of our food system. However, the future lays in redesigning present-day food systems with an accurately designed set of goals that can open up new horizons such as the use of digitalization technologies, along with new policies set for environmental protection. In the coming years, the top focus will rest on understanding agri-food waste (carbon) footprints, life cycle assessments, adopting circular bioeconomy concepts, minimal waste generation, and maximal utilization of food industrial by-products, all of which can gain infinite deliberations.

Today, the world over, food industries are facing a wide array of challenges, some of which include the practical application of novel innovations on a pilot scale, the optimization and design of processing technologies, the development of low-cost nutritious and healthy foods, ensuring high quality and safer foods, and food processing waste management. Among these, the valorization of food industrial wastes and by-products has been a hot topic of deliberation and a much acclaimed concept that has created a renewed interest of producers, consumers, researchers, academicians, policy makers and environmentalists. Globally, enormous amounts of wastes and/or by-products are generated along the entire agri-food supply chain, a major portion occurring mainly at the postprocessing levels in the industries. These wastes/by-products generated are of high concern, mainly owing to their safe disposal issues and the unwarranted stress created on the environment. In this regard, adopting appropriate management strategies and the use of technological innovations focusing on the generation of minimal wastes coupled with maximal utilization of raw materials can guarantee productive economical gain, besides ensuring the regional food security. Nevertheless, valorization of agri-food industrial wastes and by-products can be considered as superlative to produce certain value-added compounds. This concept of valorization revolves around reuse, recycle, recovery, and resource mobilization, all applied with a sustainable functional approach. Besides, this notion also meets the much acclaimed concepts of the circular economy (bioeconomy) of the EU.

Designed with an innovative approach, this book highlights most of the recent trends in the ongoing research activities in this stimulating field, aiming to fill some of the existing gaps of knowledge. A wide arena of interesting topics related to valorization of agri-food wastes and by-products, innovations, and various sustainability challenges encountered in the supply chain have been covered in this book. The book focuses its coverage on bioactives recovery, innovative green processing technologies, the functionality of bioactive compounds, biofuel production, environmental issues, as well as recent technological developments covering the state-of-the-art of agri-food wastes/by-products management and innovations thereof. The book also presents tools for value chain analysis and explores future sustainability challenges that can benefit the dependent industries. In addition, theoretical and experimental information that is useful to investigate different aspects of the valorization of agri-food wastes and by-products is also covered.

The content of the book is presented in subsections with a total of 48 chapters. The first section deals with the introductory note that exclusively introduces the subject and is the foundation for the entire book. The second section includes chapters covering the valorization of fruit and vegetable wastes and by-products, while section three has chapters that focus on beverage industries (coffee, tea, and cocoa). The fourth section covers information on the valorization of nuts and seeds. This is followed by section five and six which deal with the valorization of wastes and the by-products of dairy, animals, poultry, and the marine industry sectors, respectively. In the seventh and the last section of the book, various opportunities and challenges incurred with regard to the valorization of wastes and by-products of the agri-food industries are discussed extensively.

All of the contributing authors in this book are highly recognized experts in their respective fields, who have provided their valuable inputs on the currently witnessed ground reality issues and have proposed novel concepts to address various sustainability challenges that can significantly affect or have an impact on the future. Of late, no competitor books are available in the market wherein leading experts from different countries have positioned their view in a single volume. This book will be a prodigious reference material for agri-food scientists and technologists, agricultural engineers, environmental scientists, policy makers, and for industrial professionals working on sustainable food production, management of food loss, wastes, and by-products. Besides, this book will benefit teachers and undergraduate and postgraduate students as a readily accessible reference material.

As the editor, I sincerely thank all of my collaborating researchers/experts for their vital contribution to this book. I have been working in this interesting field for a long time, however, the concept of developing this as a book came to my mind after I recently took the position of ERA-Chair Professor in Food (By-) Products Valorisation Technologies (Valortech) at the Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia.

Further, I am highly grateful to Prof. Dr.-Ing. Martin Kranert (University of Stuttgart, Germany) and to Prof. Dr. Derek Stewart (The James Hutton Institute, United Kingdom) who have penned their thoughts as the book’s foreword and introductory notes, respectively. In addition, sincere appreciation goes to Prof. Ülle Jaakma (Vice-Rector for Research) and Prof. Toomas Tiirats (Director of Institute of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences), Estonian University of Life Sciences, who have been very supportive in all of my initiatives.

I am thankful to Elsevier and to the entire team who have played a significant role in making this book a reality. Special gratitude goes to Megan Ball (Senior Acquisitions Editor), Kelsey Connors and Samantha Allard (Editorial Project Managers) for their involvement and commitment to this venture.

Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to my wife Ranjana and children (Vidhathri, Tapas and Tanvi) for their incessant patience and coping with my workaholic nature, which was key to making this book a reality. I dedicate this book to both of them with much love and affection.

Introduction

Derek StewartAdvanced Plant Growth Centre, The James Hutton Institute, Dundee, United Kingdom

The world is reaching a crisis point in terms of climate change and the impacts this is having on our ability to produce food, products, and goods, and to live an acceptable quality of live. The FAO identifies that the predicted population increase to 8.3 billion by 2030 will create a 50% increase in demand for food and energy and with this a 30% increased demand for freshwater and an associated need for 120 Mha in developing countries to allow much of this food to be produced. However, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change research and modeling has identified that if climate change is left unaddressed it may reduce agricultural production by 2% each decade (while demand increases 14%) and that over the period from now until 2050 up to 40% of the world will develop unfamiliar climates. As if this wasn’t enough, a further 3 billion middle-class consumers will enter the market by 2030 to give a total of 5.3 billion, and of these China and India will comprise 66% of the global middle-class population and 59% of middle-class consumption. This elevated affluence group will accelerate demand for products and hence resources (https://knowledge4policy.ec.europa.eu/growing-consumerism_en; accessed 01.03.21).

This means we have to change how we produce products, including food, reduce waste, and maximize the reuse and valorization of any wastes, or more appropriately, coproducts. This approach to resource use maximization has been an activity that we have all tended to do at the small scale but the need to truly make an impact on and reverse climate change impacts requires larger-scale activities and the adoption of the circular economy into our everyday life. This is happening at national levels with many countries developing circular economy strategies, policies, and, in some cases, passing these into legislation (Salvatori et al., 2019).

If we are to fully utilize resources and adopt a sustainable approach then we need to look where and how these resources are produced, the nature of the coproducts, and the existing and emerging processes that can effectively and efficiently convert these to higher value products and feedstocks.

The very nature of sustainability and renewable resources focuses us toward natural and biologically generated products and their associated coproducts and is at the heart of this book. Here we have the latest research findings dealing with the primary and secondary production industries’ coproducts encompassing sectors such as crops, marine, livestock, poultry, and dairy. This span embraces a wide ranges of chemistries, processes, and opportunities for conversion to higher value products and feedstocks. Allied to these is a section dealing with opportunities and challenges in the circular bioeconomy sector and it is heartening to see that this encompasses important issues such as waste management models, extraction technologies including emerging absorbents, eutectic solvents, passage through biological systems such as insects and microbes, and the combination of multiple technologies to create integrated biorefinery approaches.

The many articles highlight how vibrant the research area is, the many demands for new sustainable feedstocks, and the multiple routes that can be undertaken to get to those end points. Prof. Rajeev Bhat has assembled an impressive selection of authors and papers that not only identify the scale of opportunities and challenges in the circular bioeconomy but also deliver ground-breaking solutions to see this science adopted and exploited.

The book is timely. We are emerging from isolation imposed as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, which has allowed a period of reflection and planning, and this should facilitate the creation and development of a new future based on green recovery principles. This recovery requires new approaches, modes of thought and application, and models of application and the science described here forms a solid basis for this.

Reference

Salvatori et al., 2019 Salvatori G, et al. Circular economy strategies and roadmaps in Europe: Identifying synergies and the potential for cooperation and alliance building. European Economic and Social Committee 2019; https://doi.org/10.2864/554946.

Chapter 1

Sustainability challenges in the valorization of agri-food wastes and by-products

Rajeev Bhat,    ERA-Chair for Food By-products Valorisation Technologies (VALORTECH), Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia, European Union

Abstract

In the current global circumstances (e.g., food insecurity, economic instability, recession, pandemic situation through COVID-19, etc.), a sustainable approach needs to be adopted ensure successful food production and supply chain. Globally, along the entire agri-food supply chain, enormous amounts of wastes and by-products are generated. Ineffective and unsustainable management of these wastes and by-products can be seen as a representative reflection of the socioeconomic situation of a region. In addition, environmental issues and policies adopted by a region can also have their own effects. Recent decades have witnessed globalization and free trade policies that have led to a wide range of innovative food products entering the international market. Accordingly, it is anticipated that agri-food processing industries will continue to expand in the coming decades, thus contributing toward the production of huge volumes of wastes and/or by-products. In this sense, an ecologically conscious system revolving around zero waste generation and circular economy concepts for effective valorization of agri-food industrial wastes/by-products is envisaged to contribute toward an improved economy as well as minimizing the negative impacts on the environment. Also, effective valorization of agri-food wastes/by-products can contribute significantly to regional food security, and thereby ensure sustainability in the entire production and supply chain. In this chapter, some of the crucial sustainability challenges witnessed with regard to valorization of agri-food wastes/by-products, innovations in the complex agri-food supply systems, and overcoming some of the industrial barriers are discussed. Further, the currently existing gaps, future sustainability challenges, and opportunities are identified and deliberated on.

Keywords

Food waste valorization; bioactive compounds; circular economy; sustainability challenges; food security

1.1 Introduction

A major contribution to the global economy emanates from the agri-food industrial sector, which provides wide market opportunities, supports the local economy, and provides employment. Overcoming some of the regional food security and sustainability challenges such as rapid population growth, overcoming poverty and hunger issues, and production of healthy foods for consumers remains one of the major issues that needs to be resolved, especially in the middle- and low-income countries. Nevertheless, sustainability challenges faced by developed countries are distinctive in another way. On a global scale, a wide range of sustainability challenges are persistent throughout the agri-food supply chain. In general, changing climate, unsustainable exploitation of natural resources, inconsistencies in annual food production, and increases in food wastes and/or food loss (at the on and off farm levels) are some of the key challenges that need to be addressed immediately. Meeting the demands of various interrelated components of the agri-food industry, addressing the societal needs, and understanding new business models and paradigms remains a high priority to all of those involved (e.g., researchers, academicians, policy makers, economists, government, NGOs, and others). In this regard, a sustained action framework is recommended by experts which needs to be adopted for positive transformation of the entire agri-food system keeping in mind a region’s socioeconomic situation.

Globalization and free trade policies have had their own impacts and influences on the agri-food sector. The global food supply chain has tremendously expanded, with novel and practical innovations being introduced regularly. Today, a wide range of novel and healthy (unhealthy?) food products are entering the international market due to globalization. Globally, various stages of agri-food supply chain (including processing) generate enormous amounts of wastes and/or by-products. Ineffective and unsustainable management of these wastes and/or by-products can be seen as a representative reflection of the socioeconomic, geo-political, and environmental scenario of a region. Effective valorization of agri-food wastes/by-products can contribute significantly to regional food security and ensure sustainability along the entire food production and supply chain. In the current global circumstances (e.g. food insecurity, economic instability, recession, pandemics such as COVID-19, etc.), it is highly imperative that food industrial wastes are minimized and that by-products are efficiently used for producing value-added products. In this sense, an ecologically conscious system revolving around zero waste generation and circular economy concepts for effective valorization of food industrial wastes/by-products is envisaged to contribute toward improved economies as well as minimizing the negative impacts on the environment. waste to wealth and taste the waste have been popular phrases which signify the importance of waste and by-product valorization. Several innovative approaches and practical modeling have been proposed to minimize wastes and to enable maximum utilization of by-products along the entire agri-food production and supply chain.

The recently introduced circular economy concept is a promising framework aimed towards improving the resource efficiency. Reducing waste generation, coupled with ensuring their maximal utilization can be of benefit to the economy, and can also open up new business opportunities. The circular economy concept primarily aims to accomplish sustainable production and consumption (of food) with minimal greenhouse gas emission and with sustainable food waste management. In addition, the action plan of a circular economy aims to lower food waste generation with a novel methodical approach. Apart from enhancing the resource efficiency, this plan mainly relies on reduce, reuse, recover, and recycle of materials in order to support the regional economy.

A zero-waste economy coupled with a sustainable bio-based circular society is urgently needed to address the current global situation. However, keeping in mind cost effectiveness, it is imperative that an environmental-friendly sustainable technology is adopted for competent valorization of industrial wastes and/or by-products. In this chapter, some of the imperative sustainability challenges that are expected to have an impact on the valorization of agri-food wastes and by-products are identified and discussed. In addition, various opportunities and scope for future research are discussed.

1.2 Wastes and by-products—global scenario

A wealth of literature has been engendered with substantial views from experts to develop novel processes and strategies for effective valorization of agri-food industrial wastes and/or by-products. In Fig. 1.1, an overview of the valorization of wastes and by-products is provided.

Figure 1.1 An overview of the valorization of agri-food industrial wastes and by-products.

Food loss and food wastes are two separate entities that need to be clearly understood. As per the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO Food & Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2013), a decrease in mass (dry matter) and nutritional value of a food which was originally intended for human consumption is referred to as food loss. Poor infrastructure, postharvest handling practices, transportation facilities, incompetent supply chains, lack of appropriate technologies, and lack of appropriate storage facilities are some of the factors that can contribute to food losses. In contrast, food wastes signify those foods which need to be discarded and are not fit for human consumption (spoiled food due to deterioration). This can occur because of consumer shopping and eating habits, oversupply of a product in the market, and much more. In addition, when only agricultural wastes are considered, this usually encompasses crop residues/biomass (nonedible portions), which are generated in the farm after harvest. These include the leftover leaves, stems, stalks, straw, stovers, etc.

On another note, there are experts who have defined food loss and wastes in a different approach. According to Hartikainen, Mogensen, Svanes, and Franke (2018), food wastes include only the edible portions or animals that die before reaching the maturity or at any maturity stage (inedible portions are excluded). According to Baron, Patterson, Maull, and Warnaby (2018), food wastes are defined as those foods which are lost throughout food production and consumption stages, and those still remaining edible. Närvänen, Mesiranta, Mattila, and Heikkinen, (2019) recorded their view and opined that food wastes were a wicked problem. When minimizing wastes and by-products, the application of innovative valorization strategies is of paramount interest to enable successful sustainable development. Also, it is very important that the waste hierarchy remains well understood along the entire supply chain (farm to fork, and beyond). Innovations in the agricultural sector have achieved much success in meeting global food demands, however the efficient management of the enormous volumes of food chain supply wastes is a necessity (Matharu, de Melo, & Houghton, 2016). The first International day on awareness of food loss and waste was observed on September 29, 2020 (UN Food & Agriculture Organization, 2020). As an outcome, it was opined that new innovations, novel technologies, and consumers behavior are all crucial factors that can help to reduce food losses and food waste.

Furthermore, waste prevention and waste management needs to be distinguished. The former deals mainly with the activities undertaken in contrast to waste generation, while management deals with those practical strategies and approaches dealing with wastes which have already been produced in the supply chain. As per Directive 2008/98/EC, any material produced as an outcome of a production process, the objective of which was not to produce that material, can be considered as a by-product and not as a waste, as long as they comply with the environment and human health laws. On another note, surplus on table wastes need to be considered as a completely separate entity, and so they are rather not discussed in detail in this chapter.

The economic research service department of the USDA provides regular updates on information on the Loss-Adjusted Food Availability (LAFA Data Series), which are derived based on plate wastes, food spoilage, and other food losses (ERS-USDA, 2020). According to FAO (2014), nearly 3.49 billion tons of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide equivalent) are generated via food wastes and/or food losses. Stone, Garcia-Garcia, and Rahimifard (2019) reviewed various methodologies to identify practically applicable techniques, which can be considered as a base for understanding a sustainable waste valorization identifier framework. In addition, the same researchers evaluated potential barriers and various complications in the supply chain relevant to changes to strategies that are required to be adopted for food waste valorization (Stone, Garcia-Garcia, & Rahimifard, 2020). The amount of wastes and/or by-products generated by a particular agri-food based industry depends on the types and origins of the raw materials (plant or animal based), economic situation of the region (low-, medium-, or high-income countries) and to an extent the political management scenario. According to FAO (2013), the environmental footprint of food wastage can be assessed mainly by employing four model components, which include: water footprint, carbon footprint, land degradation impacts, and biodiversity impacts. As per this report, in industrialized regions of Europe and Asia, a considerably higher carbon footprint is created by vegetable wastes, while fruit wastes occurred as a significant blue water hotspot. Nevertheless, the carbon footprint created by cattle/livestock farming is generally thought to outweigh that from plant-based farming. Globally, it was estimated that food loss and wastes exceeded 1 trillion United States dollars (FAO Food & Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2015). According to the International Panel of Experts on Sustainable Food Systems, annually ~20% of food produced in the European Union (EU) is wasted, costing about 143 billion Euros (IPES, 2019). In one of the prime EU directives (Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC), no differentiation was identified between food wastes and organic wastes (European Parliament, 2008). With nearly 45% of food produce being lost/wasted along the entire supply chain, it is vital that they can be effectively valorized (Cecilia, García-Sancho, Maireles-Torres, & Luque, 2019). According to FAO (2015), the annual contribution to food loss and wastes by cereals amounts to ~30%, ~40%–50% by fruits, vegetables, and root crops, ~20% by oilseeds, meat, and dairy products, and ~35% by the fish industry. Nevertheless, to gain success on the projected Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations, it is imperative that food wastes are minimized (FAO Food & Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2015). Nevertheless, the sustainable development goals of the UN (2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development of the United Nations) have provided a blueprint for a better future for mankind and the environment (https://sdgs.un.org/goals, accessed on 23 September 2020). In relevance to the EU context, a study was undertaken using a bottom-up approach (with nearly 134 LCA), on some of the representative products such as apple, bread, beef, chicken, milk, potato, pork, tomato, and white fish (Scherhaufer, Moates, Hartikainen, Waldron, & Obersteiner, 2018). These researchers calculated the influence of potential global warming, acidification, and eutrophication effects, and reported the values to be 186 Mt CO2-eq, 1.7 Mt SO2-eq, and 0.7 Mt PO4-eq, respectively, which was equivalent to 15%–16% of the total impact of the entire food supply chain system.

On a global scale, irrespective of the region, a major portion of food industrial wastes and by-products either goes as landfill, livestock feed, a natural composting material, or for the production of value-added chemicals/as a feedstock for fuel/biorefineries usage (Cristóbal, Caldeira, Corrado, & Sala, 2018; Maity, 2015; Ubando, Felix, & Chen, 2020). On the negative side, it has been stated that solid wastes can be a supportive material and breeding site for vectors, causing infectious diseases, and thus sustainable management of solid waste is crucial (Krystosik et al., 2020). A sustainable mitigation strategy to minimize food loss/food wastes and their contributions to greenhouse gas emissions needs to be carefully monitored trough the application of various practical models and LCA (Chen & Lin, 2008; Hoornweg, Bhada-Tata, & Kennedy, 2013; Lambin & Meyfroidt, 2011; Rashid, Voroney, & Khalid, 2010).

Likewise, categorizing of wastes and by-products as edible or nonedible portions needs to be carefully evaluated. Wastes (residues) generated in the agri-food supply chain can be a major source of bio-based products (Koutinas et al., 2014). In this regard, an integrated sustainable approach plan can include adoption of bioconversion technologies (physical, chemical, or thermochemical conversion), microbial-mediated technologies, and/or biotechnology-based technologies, which are all aimed at producing marketable value-added products. The characterization of food wastes in relation to the food–energy–water nexus has led towards identifying various types of reliable food waste management opportunities and pathways, such as those of landfilling, composting, incineration, and waste prevention measures (Kibler, Reinhart, Hawkins, Motlagh, & Wright, 2018). However, to overcome the management issues in a better way, many novel, sustainable valorization techniques have been put forward for the reuse and recycling of wastes and by-products. The applications of anaerobic digestion, combustion, fermentation, gasification, liquefaction, pyrolysis, and torrefaction are some of the commonly adopted technologies for efficient valorization. In Fig. 1.2 an overview of the categories of food (surplus food, food waste, and food loss), waste hierarchy options (best environmental options), and closing the loop in the supply chain is presented (Teigiserova, Hamelin, & Thomsen, 2020).

Figure 1.2 An overview of the categories of food (surplus food, food waste, and food loss), waste hierarchy options (best environmental options), and closing the loop in the supply chain. Reproduced with permission from Teigiserova, D.A., Hamelin, L., & Thomsen, M. (2020). Towards transparent valorization of food surplus, waste and loss: Clarifying definitions, food waste hierarchy, and role in the circular economy. Science of the Total Environment, 706, 136033. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.1360330048-9697; Elsevier: Elsevier License number: 4937041141746; License date: Oct 27, 2020.

Wastes management has been opined to be realized by reduction through the application of competent production technologies, recycling, improving the waste quality by substitution of hazardous substances, and reuse in other applications (Riemer