Easy Pre-Calculus Step-by-Step, Second Edition
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Easy Pre-Calculus Step-by-Step, Second Edition - Carolyn Wheater
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Easy Algebra Step-by-Step, Sandra Luna McCune, PhD, and William D. Clark, PhD
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Contents
Preface
1 Graphs and the Graphing Calculator
Step 1. Review Linear Equations
Step 2. Meet the Parents
Step 3. Master the Fundamentals of Graphing
Step 4. Transform the Graphs
Step 5. Master Basic Calculator Skills
2 Functions
Step 1. Analyze Relations and Functions
Step 2. Perform Arithmetic of Functions
Step 3. Compose Functions
Step 4. Find Inverse Functions
3 Quadratic Functions
Step 1. Solve Quadratic Functions
Step 2. Explore Complex Numbers
Step 3. Graph Parabolas
Step 4. Apply What You’ve Learned
4 Polynomial Functions
Step 1. Factor Polynomials
Step 2. Use Synthetic Division to Find Zeros
Step 3. Use Long Division to Factor Polynomials
Step 4. Find the Zeros of Polynomial Functions
Step 5. Graph Polynomial Functions
5 Rational Functions
Step 1. Operate with Rational Expressions
Step 2. Deal with Discontinuities
Step 3. Examine End Behavior
Step 4. Find Intercepts
Step 5. Graph Rational Functions
6 Conic Sections
Step 1. Analyze and Graph Parabolas
Step 2. Analyze and Graph Ellipses
Step 3. Analyze and Graph Circles
Step 4. Analyze and Graph Hyperbolas
Step 5. Graph and Solve Quadratic Systems
7 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Step 1. Get to Know the Exponential Function
Step 2. Define the Logarithmic Function
Step 3. Learn to Use Properties of Logarithms
Step 4. Solve Exponential and Logarithmic Equations
Step 5. Explore Exponential Growth and Decay
8 Radical Functions
Step 1. Review Rules for Exponents
Step 2. Simplify Radicals and Rationalize Denominators
Step 3. Explore the Square Root and Cube Root Functions
9 Systems of Equations
Step 1. Review Two-Variable Linear Systems
Step 2. Solve Systems of Linear Equations in Three Variables
Step 3. Solve Nonlinear Systems
10 Matrices and Determinants
Step 1. Master Matrix Arithmetic
Step 2. Find Determinants
Step 3. Apply Cramer’s Rule
Step 4. Find Inverse Matrices
Step 5. Solve Systems by Inverse Matrices
11 Triangle Trigonometry
Step 1. Review Right Triangle Trigonometry
Step 2. Use Trigonometry to Find Areas
Step 3. Use the Law of Cosines to Extend to Nonright Triangles
Step 4. Apply the Law of Sines
12 Trigonometric Functions
Step 1. Expand Your Concept of Angles
Step 2. Learn the Unit Circle
Step 3. Define Trigonometric Functions
Step 4. Explore Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Step 5. Verify Identities
Step 6. Use Identities
Step 7. Solve Trigonometric Equations
13 Polar and Parametric Equations
Step 1. Plot Points in the Polar Coordinate System
Step 2. Convert Coordinates Between Systems
Step 3. Graph Polar Equations
Step 4. Convert Equations Between Polar and Rectangular Forms
Step 5. Convert Equations Between Parametric and Function Forms
Step 6. Graph Parametric Equations
14 Transformations
Step 1. Understand the Geometry of Reflections
Step 2. Translate by Reflecting
Step 3. Rotate by Reflecting
Step 4. Dilate Geometrically
Step 5. Use Matrices for Transformations
15 Rotating Conics
Step 1. Create the Equation that Rotates a Conic
Step 2. Recognize Rotation in Equations
Step 3. Graph a Rotated Conic
Step 4: Classify Rotated Conics without Graphing
16 Complex Numbers
Step 1. Change Between Forms
Step 2. Add and Subtract Complex Numbers
Step 3. Multiply and Divide Complex Numbers
Step 4. Raise a Complex Number to a Power
Step 5. Find the Roots of a Complex Number
17 Limits
Step 1. Evaluate Limits
Step 2. Deal with Problems
Step 3. Use Properties of Limits
Step 4. Evaluate Infinite Limits and Limits at Infinity
18 Sequences and Series
Step 1. Find Terms of Sequences
Step 2. Find Limits of Sequences
Step 3. Find Sums of Series
Step 4. Find Sums of Infinite Series
Answer Key
Index
Preface
Easy Pre-Calculus Step-by-Step is an interactive approach to the mathematics necessary for pre-calculus. It contains completely detailed, step-by-step instructions for the skills and concepts that are the foundation for advanced mathematics. Moreover, it features guiding principles, cautions against common errors, and offers other helpful advice as pop-ups
in the margins. The book leads you from basic algebra to a clear understanding of functions, explores fundamental trigonometry, and introduces you to the notion of limits. Concepts are broken into basic components to provide ample practice of fundamental skills.
Pre-Calculus, as its name implies, is meant to prepare you for calculus, but what does that mean? To succeed in calculus, or any advanced mathematics, you will need strong algebraic skills as well as a clear understanding of functions in general and the many different types of functions specifically: polynomial, rational, exponential, logarithmic, and more. You will want to build skill in graphing quickly by means of transformations, and you’ll explore the polar coordinate system. From the construction of the trigonometric ratios in right triangles to the definition of the trigonometric functions in the unit circle, you will extend your knowledge of relationships and how to apply them. You may even investigate sequences and series and peek into the future by exploring limits.
Pre-Calculus may seem like too much to master, and the wide variety of topics may feel difficult to organize. With this step-by-step system, success will come. Learning pre-calculus, as with any mathematics, requires lots of practice. It requires courage to admit what you do not know, willingness to work on the problem, and a calm, orderly attempt to use what you do know. Most of all, it requires a true confidence in yourself and in the fact that with practice and persistence, you will be able to say, I can do this!
In addition to the step-by-step explanations and sample problems, this book presents a variety of exercises to let you assess your understanding. After working a set of exercises, use the solutions in the Answer Key to check your progress.
We sincerely hope Easy Pre-Calculus Step-by-Step will help you acquire the competence and the confidence you need to succeed in pre-calculus, calculus, and all your mathematical undertakings.
1
Graphs and the Graphing Calculator
A great deal of work in pre-calculus is centered on functions and their graphs. While the use of the graphing calculator has made it possible to explore many more, and many more complicated, functions than in the past, the ability to sketch the graph of a function by hand quickly is still an essential skill.
Step 1. Review Linear Equations
Your first introduction to graphing was linear functions, and they will always be important. Many of the skills you developed with linear graphs will carry over to other functions.
Recognize Horizontal and Vertical Lines
Recognizing the linear equations that don’t behave in a typical fashion will save you time. Horizontal lines, because they have a zero slope, have an equation of the form y = c, where c is some constant. Vertical lines are the real oddity. They are not functions, and their equations don’t fit the y = mx + b standard. The equation of a vertical line is x = c, where c is a constant.
Graph Quickly
While constructing a table of values is always available as a graphing method, it is time consuming, and linear equations in particular allow for quick sketching methods.
• Slope-intercept. If the equation is in slope-intercept, or y = mx + b form, or can easily be converted to that form, plot the y-intercept (0, b), and then count the slope to locate other points on the line. Connect the points to create the line.
• Intercept-intercept. If the equation is in standard form, the quickest method is to determine the x- and y-intercepts, plot them, and connect. To find the x-intercept, let y equal 0 and simplify. To find the y-intercept, replace x with 0 and simplify.
Write Equations
Given a graph, or information about a graph, you may be asked to write the equation of the line. The simplest way to do that is to use the point-slope form: y – y1 = m(x – x1)
• Point-slope form. To write the equation of a line using point-slope form, you’ll need to know a point on the line (x1, y1) and the slope m, or two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y. Then the equation can be written by replacing x1, y1, and m in the point-slope form y – y1 = m(x – x1) with the known values. The point-slope form can be simplified and transformed to slope-intercept or standard form if desired.
• Parallel and perpendicular lines. To write the equation of a line parallel to a given line, determine the slope of the given line, usually by putting the given equation in slope-intercept form. Write the equation of the desired line by using point-slope form with the same slope as the given line and the point you want the desired line to pass through.
To write the equation of a line perpendicular to a given line, you’ll also want to determine the slope of the given line, but you’ll use the negative reciprocal of the slope of the given line as the slope of the perpendicular line. Use point-slope form with that negative reciprocal slope and the point you want the line to pass through.
Exercise 1.1
Test your understanding by doing the following exercises.
1. Sketch the graph of x = 6.
2. Sketch the graph of y = -3.
.
4. Sketch the graph of 2x – 4y = 12.
5. Write the equation of a line with slope of –3 and a y-intercept of 5.
through the point (2,–1).
7. Write the equation of a line through the points (3,9) and (–4,2).
8. Write the equation of a line parallel to 5x – 7y = 35 through the point (–7,4).
9. Write the equation of a line perpendicular to 4x – 2y = 11 through the point (–2,5).
10. Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the segment that connects (3,–2) and (–5,6).
Step 2. Meet the Parents
If you are acquainted with the simplest function typical of a class, you’ll find it easier to predict the behavior of functions you’re trying to graph. These parent functions give you a place to start, and knowing a few key points on each parent graph will help you apply transformations.
Constant Function
The constant function f(x) = c, for some constant c, has a graph that is a horizontal line. Its domain is (−∞, ∞), and the range contains the single value, c.
Linear Function
Linear functions have the form f(x) = mx + b, where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept. The parent function is the function f(x) = x, with a slope of 1 and a y-intercept of 0. The domain is (−∞, ∞), and the range is (−∞, ∞). Key points on the parent graph are (−1,−1), (0,0), and (1,1).
Constant function
Linear function
Quadratic Function
The quadratic function has the form f(x) = ax² + bx + c, for real numbers a, b, and c, with a ≠ 0, but is easier to graph when the equation is in vertex form, y = a(x – h)² + k. In this form, the vertex is (h, k). The parent function for the quadratic family is the function f(x) = x², with the vertex at the origin. The domain of the parent function is (−∞, ∞), and the range is (0, ∞). Key points on the parent graph are (−1,1), (0,0), and (1,1).
Quadratic function
Square Root Function
has a domain of [0, ∞) and a range of [0, ∞). Key points on the graph are (0,0), (1,1), and (4,2).
Cubic Function
Cubic functions have the form f(x) = ax³ + bx² + cx + d, for real numbers a, b, c, and d, with a ≠ 0, but here, too, the graph can be sketched more easily if expressed as f(x) = a (x – h)³ + k. The parent function is f (x) = x³ with a domain of (−∞, ∞) and a range of (−∞, ∞). The key points to remember are (−1,−1), (0,0), and (1,1).
Square root function
Cubic function
Cube Root Function
has a domain of (−∞, ∞) and a range of (−∞, ∞). Key points on the graph are (−1,−1), (0,0), and (1,1).
Cube root function
Exponential Function
The parent function for the exponential family, f(x) = bx, for some constant base b, with b > 0, has a domain of (−∞, ∞) and a range of (0, ∞). The graph has a horizontal asymptote of y , (0,1), and (1,b).
Logarithmic Function
The logarithmic function is the inverse of the exponential function. The parent graph is f(x) = logbx. The domain is (0, ∞), and the range is (−∞, ∞). The graph has a vertical asymptote of x , (1,0), and (b,1).
Exponential function
Logarithmic function
Rational Function
. The domain of the function is (−∞,0) ∪ (0, ∞), and the range is (−∞,0) ∪ (0,∞). The graph has a vertical asymptote of x = 0 and a horizontal asymptote of y = 0. Key points on the graph are
.
Rational function
Exercise 1.2
Identify the family from which each graph comes.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Step 3. Master the Fundamentals of Graphing
When you begin to sketch the graph of any function, it’s wise to take a moment to think about essential information.
Identify the Domain
Begin with a domain of all real numbers, and then eliminate values, if necessary, according to the following checklist.
• Is there a denominator? If so, eliminate any values that make the denominator equal to 0.
• Is there a root with an even index? If so, eliminate any values that make the radicand negative.
• Is there a logarithm? If so, eliminate any values that make the argument of the log equal to 0 or a negative number.
• Is this function modeling a real situation? If so, consider what values make sense in that model. A function representing volume as