LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS: STRATEGY, EVIDENCE AND PRACTICE

By Thomas Garavan, Carole Hogan and Amanda Cahir-O'Donnell

LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS: STRATEGY, EVIDENCE and PRACTICE provides a comprehensive and thematic overview of the thinking, research evidence and practice of strategic L&D in organisations. It covers both strategic and operational practice dimensions, to help students of L&D and HRM to acquire a deep understanding of the field and to inform the practice of L&D professionals by identifying the best available evidence on L&D practices and by providing them with guidelines for action. It builds on the core operational building blocks of L&D and goes beyond these to take a strategic perspective, emphasising the contribution of L&D to organisational and financial performance and the need to align formal and informal L&D with business objectives. Each chapter incorporates pedagogical features to enable the student or practitioner to apply the concepts to organisational life, link theory to practice and signpost readers to the best available evidence on L&D practices. Specifically: Succinct and concise explanations of Key Concepts found within the field of L Critical Reflection exercises that help the reader to engage with key concepts and debates within the field; A Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice feature to summarise the results of meta-analysis and systematic / integrative reviews in a manner that is accessible to practitioners; Two Case Studies as examples of application to practice relevant to the chapter’s content – and, the end of each chapter, a longer case study with questions that provide an opportunity for classroom-based and practitioner discussion; Recommended Further Reading to allow the reader to enhance their understanding of the chapter content; A Glossary to provide students and practitioners with easy access to definitions of the key concepts used throughout the book, as well as other important L&D terms. The book is divided into three key sections, which cover different aspects of L&D: Section One: Concepts and Context of L&D in Organisations: Chapter 1 discusses the concepts of L&D, the external and internal context of L&D and the key dimensions of strategic L&D in organisations. Chapters 2 and 3 introduce readers to the key theoretical and conceptual foundations of strategic L&D, and its key components, including strategy processes, roles and resources; Section Two: Theory and Practice of L&D: Chapters 4 to 14 explain the main theories, concepts, models and practices that underpin strategic L&D in organisations. This section covers a wide range of issues that L&D practitioners need to better understand the design, delivery and evaluation of L&D in organisations; Section Three: Developing the L&D Professional and the Future Role of L&D: Chapters 15 and 16cover the changing roles of L&D practitioners in organisations, their competence development, professional ethics and the future of strategic L&D, including potential new roles and forms of L&D. LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS: STRATEGY, EVIDENCE and PRACTICE is published in association with the Irish Institute of Training and Development and aims to set the agenda for L&D professionals in the future. It is a significant update to the best-selling MAKING TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT WORK.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Oak Tree Press
• Release date: Sep 1, 2020
• ISBN: 9781781194317

Book preview

LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT IN ORGANISATIONS

Strategy, Evidence and Practice

Thomas Garavan, Carole Hogan, Amanda Cahir-O’Donnell & Claire Gubbins

Published by Oak Tree Press, Cork, Ireland

www.oaktreepress.com / www.SuccessStore.com

© 2020 Thomas Garavan, Carole Hogan, Amanda Cahir-O’Donnell, Claire Gubbins

A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978 1 78119 429 4 (hardback)

ISBN 978 1 78119 431 7 (ePub)

ISBN 978 1 78119 432 4 (Kindle)

ISBN 978 1 78119 433 1 (PDF)

Cover image: Preechar Bowonkitwanchai / 123rf.com

Cover design: Kieran O’Connor Design

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording or electronically without written permission of the publisher. Such written permission also must be obtained before any part of this publication is stored in a retrieval system of any nature. Requests for permission should be directed to Oak Tree Press, [e-mail].

CONTENTS

Figures

Tables

Abbreviations

Foreword

Preface

Pedagogical Features

Structure

Acknowledgements

SECTION 1: CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS OF L&D IN ORGANISATIONS

Chapter 1: L&D: Concepts, Context and Processes

Learning Objectives

Key Concepts

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Defining L&D

1.2.1 Learning

1.2.2 Training

1.2.3 Development and Education

1.2.4 Instruction and Teaching

1.2.5 Human Resource Development and Workplace Learning

Case Study 1.1: L&D in PwC

1.3 The Historical Evolution of L&D in Organisations

1.3.1 The Emergence of the Classroom and Structured Onthe-job Training

1.3.2 eLearning and Digitisation

1.3.3 Blended Learning

1.3.4 Social Learning

1.3.5 Personalised learning

1.4 The Context of L&D

1.4.1 The External Context of L&D

Case Study 1.2: L&D and the Gig Economy

1.4.2 The Changing Organisational Context

1.4.3 Changes in Perspectives on Managing People

1.5 Defining Strategic L&D

1.5.1 Strategic L&D: Approach and Philosophy

1.5.2 The Case for Investment in Strategic L&D

Critical Reflection 1.1

Critical Reflection 1.2

Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 1

Conclusion

Summary

Review Questions

Strategic L&D in Action 1

Case Study 1.3: Investing in the Development of Employees: Amazon, Google, Dell and Intel

Further Reading

Chapter 2: Strategic L&D in Organisations: Theory, Frameworks, Structures and Governance

Learning Objectives

Key Concepts

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Theoretical Perspectives: Explaining the Contribution of L&D

2.2.1 The Universalistic Approach to L&D

Critical Reflection 2.1

2.2.2 The Contingency Approach to L&D

2.2.3 The Configurational Approach to L&D

Case Study 2.1: L&D in InfoSys

2.2.4 The Architectural Approach to L&D

2.3 Explaining the Link between L&D, Individual and Organisational Performance

2.3.1 Human Capital Theory and L&D

2.3.2 The Resource-based View and L&D

2.3.3 The Behavioural Approach and L&D

2.3.4 Ability-Motivation-Opportunity Theory and L&D

2.3.5 Attribution Theory and L&D

2.3.6 Social Exchange Theory and L&D

2.4 Conceptual Frameworks to Understand L&D in Organisations

2.4.1 The Systematic L&D Model

2.4.2 The Open Systems Training Model

2.4.3 Garavan’s Process Model of L&D

2.4.4 Fairhurst’s Future L&D Scenarios Approach

2.4.5 Ulrich & Brockbank’s Updated Model and Caldwell’s Change Model

Case Study 2.2: Implementing a New Vision at Virgin Trains – The Role of L&D

2.5 Structuring L&D in Organisations

2.5.1 L&D Structure Considerations

2.5.2 Structural Options for the L&D Function

2.5.3 L&D Governance in Organisations

Critical Reflection 2.2

Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 2

Conclusion

Summary

Review Questions

Strategic L&D in Action 2

Case Study 2.3: L&D Strategy and the ESB’s Brighter Future Strategy

Further Reading

Chapter 3: Strategic L&D: Strategy, Processes and Resources

Learning Objectives

Key Concepts

3.1 Introduction

3.2 What is L&D Strategy?

3.3 How Does L&D Strategy Support Organisational Strategy?

3.3.1 L&D Supporting Business Strategy

3.3.2 L&D’s Role in Shaping Strategy

Case Study 3.1: People Strategy in the Irish Police Force

3.4 Developing L&D Strategy: Content Issues

3.4.1 Why does L&D Matter?

3.4.2 What Should L&D Strategy Focus On?

3.4.3 How Will L&D Be Facilitated?

3.4.4 Where Does Responsibility for L&D Sit?

3.4.5 Who Supports L&D?

3.5 Developing L&D Strategy: Process Issues

3.6 Developing L&D Strategy: Implementation Issues

3.6.1 Successful Implementation of L&D Strategy

3.6.2 Executive and Senior Management Responsibility for L&D Strategy Implementation

3.6.3 The Role of the Line Manager in L&D Strategy Implementation

3.6.4 The Role of the Employee in L&D Strategy Implementation

3.6.5 The Role of L&D Professionals in L&D Strategy Implementation

Case Study 3.2: Using L&D to Implement Strategy in the Raffles Hotel

Critical Reflection 3.1

3.7 Resourcing L&D in Organisations

3.7.1 Financial Resources

3.7.2 Physical Resources

3.7.3 Human Resources

3.8 Developing a Learning Culture and Climate

Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 3

Conclusion

Summary

Review Questions

Strategic L&D in Action 3

Case Study 3.3: Stryker’s Global Engineering Development Programme

Further Reading

SECTION 2: THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF L&D

Chapter 4: Adult Learning, Learner Motivation and Engagement

Learning Objectives

Key Concepts

4.1 Introduction

4.2 What Are Learning and Learning Outcomes?

4.3 The Historical Evolution of Adult Learning Theory

Critical Reflection 4.1

4.3.1 Pedagogy and Andragogy

4.3.2 Scaffolding and Guided Discovery Learning

4.4 Categories of Adult Learning Theory

4.4.1 Instrumental Learning Theories

4.4.2 Humanistic Learning Theories

4.4.3 Transformative Learning Theory

4.4.4 Social Theories of Learning

4.4.5 Recent Theories of Adult Learning

4.5 Adult Learning Styles

4.5.1 Kolb’s Learning Style Theory

4.5.2 Honey & Mumford’s Learning Styles

4.5.3 The VARK Model

4.5.4 Implications for L&D

Critical Reflection 4.2

4.6 Multiple Intelligences and Adult Learning

4.7 Training Motivation and Engagement

4.7.1 Training Motivation

Case Study 4.1: What Is Autonomous Learning and What Does It Mean for Employees?

4.7.2 Training Engagement Theory

4.8 Misconceptions about Adult Learning in Organisations

4.8.1 Learners Over a Certain Age Cannot Learn

4.8.2 Technophobia

4.8.3 The Person Who Learns Fast Is Best Suited to the Job

4.8.4 Strong Correlation Between Academic Success and Performance On-the-job

4.8.5 People Learn All They Need to Know On-the-job

4.8.6 People Learn Nothing from Mistakes

4.8.7 People Learn All They Need to Know at the Beginning of Their Career

4.8.8 Telling and Exhorting by an Instructor is the Same as Learning by Listening

Case Study 4.2: Designing Training for Older Employees

4.9 The Implications of Adult Learning Theories for L&D

4.9.1 Sequencing the Training Material

4.9.2 Whole versus Part Learning

4.9.3 Setting Objectives and Sub-objectives

4.9.4 Providing a Meaningful Context for Learning

4.9.5 Directing Attention, Guidance, Prompting and Cueing

4.9.6 Practice and Rehearsal

4.9.7 Distribution of Practice

4.9.8 Feedback, Knowledge of Results and Reinforcement

4.9.9 Retention and Forgetfulness

Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 4

Conclusion

Summary

Review Questions

Strategic L&D in Action 4

Case Study 4.3: Personalised and Self-directed Learning at Mastercard

Further Reading

Chapter 5: Identifying and Prioritising L&D Needs

Learning Objectives

Key Concepts

5.1 Introduction

5.2 What Are Learning Needs and Learning Needs Analysis?

5.3 Approaches to L&D Learning Needs Analysis

5.3.1 The Analytical Approach

5.3.2 The Competency Approach

5.3.3 The Problem-solving Approach

5.3.4 The Strategic L&D Approach

Case Study 5.1: Identifying L&D at Nestlé

Critical Reflection 5.1

5.4 L&D Needs Analysis: Organisational, Job / Task and Individual Levels

5.4.1 Organisational L&D Needs Analysis

Critical Reflection 5.2

5.4.2 Job / Task Analysis

5.4.3 Individual / Person Level Analysis

Case Study 5.2: Learning Needs Analysis in Small Organisations: An Informal Approach

5.5 Why Identifying L&D Needs is Important

5.5.1 The Benefits of L&D Needs Analysis

5.5.2 Responding to L&D Triggers in Organisations

5.6 Who Should Be Involved in the L&D Needs Assessment Process?

5.7 L&D Needs Analysis Methods

5.7.1 L&D Needs Analysis Methods at the Organisational Level

5.7.2 L&D Needs Assessment Methods at the Job / Task Level

5.7.3 L&D Needs Analysis Methods at the Person Level

5.8 Analysing L&D Data and Determining L&D Priorities

5.9 Challenges Encountered when Conducting L&D Needs Analysis

5.9.1 Political Considerations

5.9.2 Poor L&D Processes and Expertise

5.9.3 Lack of Leadership and Employee Buy-in to the Needs Analysis process

5.9.4 Time, Cost and Confidentiality Issues

Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 5

Conclusion

Summary

Review Questions

Strategic L&D in Action 5

Case Study 5.3: Identifying the Training Needs of Loco Pilots at Indian Rail

Further Reading

Chapter 6: Designing Classroom, Digital, Blended and Flipped Learning Solutions

Learning Objectives

Key Concepts

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Defining the Key Components of the L&D Design Process

6.3 The Make or Buy Decision and L&D

6.4 Designing L&D: Models and Approaches

6.4.1 The ADDIE Model

6.4.2 The Instructional Systems Design Model

6.4.3 The Rapid Prototyping Model

6.4.4 The Layers of Negotiation Model

Case Study 6.1: Meeting the Learning Needs of Boomers and Seniors

6.5 The Development of Learning Objectives

6.5.1 Typologies of Learning Objectives

Critical Reflection 6.1

6.6 Developing Classroom Learning Content

6.6.1 Strategies to Develop Learning Content for the Classroom

6.7 Designing and Developing Digital Learning Solutions

6.7.1 What is Digital Learning?

6.7.2 Designing Effective Digital Learning Solutions

Case Study 6.2: Using Technology to Deliver L&D in Hewlett Packard

6.8 Designing Blended and Flipped Learning Solutions

6.8.1 What Are Blended and Flipped Learning?

Critical Reflection 6.2

6.8.2 Using Blended and Flipped Learning

Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 6

Conclusion

Summary

Review Questions

Strategic L&D in Action 6

Case Study 6.3: Designing and Delivering Induction and Initial Training at Chill Insurance

Further Reading

Chapter 7: Off-the-job L&D Methods

Learning Objectives

Key Concepts

7.1 Introduction

7.2 L&D Methods: Formal and Informal Methods

7.2.1 What is a L&D Method?

7.2.2 The Spectrum of L&D Methods

7.2.3 L&D Methods and Business Strategy

Critical Reflection 7.1

7.2.4 What Does Formal Mean in the Context of Off-the-job and On-the-job Learning Methods?

Case Study 7.1: Du Pont’s STOP Safety Training Programme

7.2.5 Informal L&D Methods

7.3 How L&D Methods Differ

7.3.1 Learning Modality

7.3.2 Learning Environment

7.3.3 Location of Learning and Trainer

7.3.4 Trainer Presence

7.3.5 Interactions Between Learners and Trainers

7.3.6 Time Demands

7.3.7 Cost Issues

7.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Formal Off-the-job L&D Methods

7.4.1 Didactic Formal Off-the-job L&D Methods

7.4.2 Experiential Formal Off-the-job L&D Methods

Case Study 7.2: Using Action-based Learning in Heineken to Develop Front-line Managers

Critical Reflection 7.2

Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 7

Conclusion

Summary

Review Questions

Strategic L&D in Action 7

Case Study 7.3: Using Blended Learning Methods in Starbucks to Develop Front-line Employees

Further Reading

Chapter 8: On-the-job L&D Methods

Learning Objectives

Key Concepts

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Key Features of Structured On-the-job Training

8.2.1 Near-the-job Training

8.3 Different Types of Structured On-the-job L&D

8.3.1 Job Instruction Training

8.3.2 Development Discussions and Planning

Critical Reflection 8.1

Case Study 8.1: Flight Attendant Training at JetBlue

8.3.3 Job Performance Aids

8.3.4 Job Rotation and Transfers

8.3.5 Job Shadowing

8.3.6 Internships

8.3.7 Apprenticeships

8.3.8 Coaching

8.3.9 Mentoring

8.4 Using Informal L&D Methods in Organisations

8.4.1 Different Types of Informal On-the-job Learning Methods

8.5 Micro Learning in Organisations

Case Study 8.2: Informal Learning in Small Organisations

8.6 Blended Learning and the 70:20:10 Model

8.6.1 The Concept of Blended Learning

8.6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Blended Learning

8.6.3 The 70:20: 10 Model

Critical Reflection 8.2

8.7 When are Structured Off-the-job and On-the-job and Informal L&D Methods Appropriate?

8.7.1 Learning Objectives

8.7.2 Learner Characteristics

8.7.3 Trainer Characteristics

8.7.4 Organisational Context, Cost and Resource Issues

Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 8

Conclusion

Summary

Review Questions

Strategic L&D in Action 8

Case Study 8.3: Training within Industry and Toyota

Further Reading

Chapter 9: Implementing and Delivering Classroom-based L&D in Organisations

Learning Objectives

Key Concepts

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Defining Training Implementation and Delivery

9.3 Instruction versus Facilitation

Critical Reflection 9.1

9.3.1 Trainer Style and Effectiveness

9.3.2 Trainer Presence in the Classroom

9.4 Applying Learning Theory to the Delivery of Classroom Training

9.4.1 Pre-training Interventions

9.4.2 Interventions During Training

Case Study 9.1: Using Humour in the Classroom

9.5 Developing Lesson Plans for Classroom Training

9.6 Delivering a Classroom Training Session Using Instruction and Facilitation

9.6.1 Using Instruction to Deliver Training

9.6.2 Using Facilitation in Training

Critical Reflection 9.2

9.7 Creating an Effective Classroom Training Environment

9.7.1 Seating Arrangements for Effective Training

9.7.2 Training Site, Materials, Equipment and Scheduling

9.8 Delivering Training in the Classroom: Key Challenges

9.8.1 Disruptive Learners in the Classroom

9.8.2 Challenges for L&D Practitioners in Delivering Classroom Training

Case Study 9.2: Using the Classroom to Onboard Employees at Bristol-Myers Squibb

Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 9

Conclusion

Summary

Review Questions

Strategic L&D in Action 9

Case Study 9.3: Cultural Differences in Reactions to L&D Methods

Further Reading

Chapter 10: Using Technology to Deliver L&D in Organisations

Learning Objectives

Key Concepts

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Defining Technology-based Learning and Digital Learning

10.3 The Shift to Technology-based Training and Digital Learning

10.3.1 Shifts in Thinking about Learning

10.3.2 The Changing Performance Agenda for L&D

10.3.3 The Emergence of New Technology Tools

10.4 eLearning

10.4.1 Instructor-led or Self-directed

10.4.2 Asynchronous or Synchronous

10.4.3 Effectiveness and Advantages / Disadvantages

Critical Reflection 10.1

10.5 Massive Open Online Courses

10.6 Mobile Learning

10.6.1 Accessibility

10.6.1 Distractibility

Case Study 10.1: Mobile Learning at Merrill Lynch

10.7 Gamification and L&D

Case Study 10.2: Using Games in the Deloitte Leadership Academy

10.8 Computer-based Simulations, Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality and Training

10.8.1 Virtual Reality

10.8.2 Virtual Worlds

10.8.3 Augmented Reality

10.9 Learning Management Systems and L&D

10.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Technology-based Training and Digital Learning

10.10.1 Advantages and Disadvantages for Learners

10.10.2 Advantages and Disadvantages for L&D Specialists

10.10.3 Advantages and Disadvantages for Organisations

Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 10

Conclusion

Summary

Review Questions

Strategic L&D in Action 10

Case Study 10.3: Virtual Reality and Training of Employees in Walmart

Further Reading

Chapter 11: Social, Collaborative and Collective Learning in Organisations

Learning Objectives

Key Concepts

Introduction

11.2 Defining Social, Collaborative and Collective Learning Processes

11.2.1 How do Social, Collaborative and Collective Learning Differ?

Critical Reflection 11.1

11.3 Different Types of Social, Collaborative and Collective Learning

11.3.1 Learning in Networks

11.3.2 Collective Team Learning

11.3.3 Learning in Communities of Practice

11.3.4 The Learning Organisation and Organisational Learning

Critical Reflection 11.2

11.4 Social Media and the New Social Learning

11.4.1 The New Social Learning

11.4.2 Social Media and Social Learning

Case Study 11.1: Using Social Media for Training in Marks & Spencer

11.5 Collective Social Learning Processes and Tools

11.5.1 Learning Circles and Organisational Dialogue

11.5.2 Advocacy and Inquiry

11.5.3 Open Space Technology

11.5.4 World Café

11.5.5 Time out of Time

Case Study 11.2: Social learning: The Sea Salt Learning Approach

11.6 Contextual Conditions Facilitating Social, Collaborative and Collective Learning

11.6.1 Learning Culture

11.6.2 Teamwork

11.6.3 Trust and Social Capital

11.6.4 Leadership, Champions and Communication

11.6.5 Resources

Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 11

Conclusion

Summary

Review Questions

Strategic L&D in Action 11

Case Study 11.3: Citigroup’s Journey to a Culture of Continuous Learning

Further Reading

Chapter 12: Transfer of Training in Organisations

Learning Objectives

Key Concepts

12.1 Introduction

12.2 What is Training Transfer?

12.3 Why is Training Transfer Important for Organisations?

12.4 Transfer of Training Theory

12.4.1 The Theory of Identical Elements

12.4.2 The Stimulus Generalisation Theory

12.4.3 The Cognitive Theory of Transfer

12.5 The Training Transfer Process

12.5.1 Baldwin & Ford’s Model of the Training Transfer Process

12.5.2 The Kontoghiorghes Model

12.5.3 Haskell’s Taxonomy of Transfer and Transfer Principles

12.6 The Learning Transfer Environment

Case Study 12.1: Embedding Training in Wegmans

12.7 Facilitating Training Transfer: Strategies Before, During and After Training

12.7.1 Transfer of Training Strategies Before Training

12.7.2 Transfer of Training Strategies During Training

12.7.3 Transfer of Training Strategies After Training

Critical Reflection 12.1

Case Study 12.2: Using Brain Science to Enhance Training Transfer

12.8 Training Transfer Interventions

12.8.1 Transfer of Training Interventions at the End of Training

12.8.2 Transfer of Training Interventions On-the-job Post Training

12.9 Auditing your Organisation’s Training Transfer Potential

Critical Reflection 12.2

Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 12

Conclusion

Summary

Review Questions

Strategic L&D in Action 12

Case Study 12.3: Embedding Compliance in BNP Paribas

Further Reading

Chapter 13: Evaluating L&D in Organisations

Learning Objectives

Key Concepts

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Defining Evaluation and How It Differs from Related Concepts

13.3 Why Evaluate L&D?

13.3.1 The Case for Evaluating L&D

13.3.2 Barriers to Evaluating L&D

Critical Reflection 13.1

13.4 Models of Training Evaluation

13.4.1 Kirkpatrick’s Hierarchical Model of Evaluation and New World Kirkpatrick Model

Case Study 13.1: How Johnson & Johnson Trains Doctors

13.4.2 The COMA Model of Evaluation

13.4.3 The Decision-based Evaluation Model

13.4.4 The Integrated Model of Training Evaluation and Effectiveness

13.4.5 The Multilevel Training Evaluation Taxonomy

13.4.6 The Omnidirectional Training Evaluation Model

13.5 Conducting Evaluations: Process and Outcome Evaluations

13.5.1 Process Evaluation

13.5.2 Outcome Evaluation

Case Study 13.2: What Are Organisations Doing to Evaluate L&D?

13.5.3 Measuring Job Behaviour

13.5.4 Measuring Organisational Results

Critical Reflection 13.2

13.6 Data Collection Designs for Training Evaluation

Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 13

Conclusion

Summary

Review Questions

Strategic L&D in Action 13

Case Study 13.3: GE’s Brilliant Learning Programme

Further Reading

Chapter 14: Return on Investment and Learning Analytics

Learning Objectives

Key Concepts

Introduction

14.2 Defining Return on Investment, Learning Analytics and Evidence-based L&D

14.2.1 Return on Investment

14.2.2 Learning Analytics

14.2.3 Evidence-based L&D

14.3 Why Organisations Calculate Return on Investment

14.3.1 Does L&D Make a Difference? Some Findings

14.4 Costing L&D

14.4.1 Distinguishing Learning, Training and Opportunity Costs

14.4.2 Direct and Indirect Costs

14.5 Measuring the Benefits of Training

14.6 Calculating Return on Investment on Training

Case Study 14.1: Measuring the Return on Investment in L&D in Wipro

14.6.1 Different Return on Investment Methodologies

14.6.2 Utility Analysis and Break-Even Analysis

14.6.3 The Balanced Scorecard and L&D

Critical Reflection 14.1

14.7 Learning Analytics and L&D

14.7.1 Defining Learning Analytics

14.7.2 Benchmarks and Data Analytics

14.7.3 Evidence-based L&D

Case Study 14.2: Why Has Our Training Stopped Working?

Critical Reflection 14.2

14.7.4 L&D and Big Data

14.8 Implementing Return on Investment and L&D Data Analytics

Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 14

Conclusion

Summary

Review Questions

Strategic L&D in Action 14

Case Study 14.3: How Are Organisations Using Learning Analytics?

Further Reading

SECTION 3: DEVELOPING THE L&D PROFESSIONAL AND THE FUTURE ROLES OF L&D

Chapter 15: Changing L&D Roles, Competence Development and Professional Ethics

Learning Objectives

Key Concepts

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Defining the L&D Professional Role in Organisations

15.2.1 Expectations of Organisational Stakeholders about L&D

15.3 The Spectrum of L&D Roles in Organisations

15.3.1 L&D Provider

Case Study 15.1: What Does Research Tell Us about L&D Roles in Organisations?

15.3.2 Internal Consultant and Advisor

15.3.3 Boundary Spanner and Business Partner

15.3.4 Change Agent

15.3.5 Capacity and Capability-building

15.3.6 Facilitator of Transformational Learning

Critical Reflection 15.1

15.4 The Competencies of L&D Professionals

15.4.1 Business, Financial and Technical Competencies

15.4.2 Managerial Competencies

15.4.3 Cognitive Competencies

15.4.4 Relationship-building, Collaborative Working and Networking Competencies

15.4.5 L&D Competencies and Expertise

15.5 Developing the L&D Professional in Organisations

15.5.1 Defining Continuous Professional Development

15.5.2 Continuous Professional Development Strategies for L&D Practitioners

Critical Reflection 15.2

15.6 Professionalism, Ethics and the L&D Practitioner

15.6.1 The Nature of Professionalism

15.6.2 Ethics and L&D

Case Study 15.2: Manager of a Community Training Project to a Senior L&D Role: A Developmental Journey

15.6.3 The Principles-based Approach and Codes of Professional Practice

Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 15

Conclusion

Summary

Review Questions

Strategic L&D in Action 15

Case Study 13.3: Aligning the L&D Role in Service Organisations

Further Reading

Chapter 16: The Future of L&D in Organisations

Learning Objectives

Key Concepts

16.1 Introduction

16.2 The Changing Landscape of L&D

16.2.1 Future Worlds of Work: Implications for L&D

Critical Reflection 16.1

16.3 Delivering L&D in a Globalised World

16.3.1 Strategic Purposes of L&D in a Global Context

Case Study 16.1: What Is Invisible L&D?

16.3.2 National Culture and L&D

16.3.3 Developing L&D for Global L&D Roles

16.4 Changing Perspectives on L&D in Organisations

16.4.1 Generational Attitudes towards L&D in Organisations

16.4.2 Life-long and Continuous Independent Learning

16.4.3 Personalisation, Individualisation and Differentiation of L&D

16.4.4 Learners as Co-Creators of Learning

Critical Reflection 16.2

Case Study 16.2: Artificial Intelligence and L&D

16.4.5 Employees Paying for Their Own Learning in Organisations

16.5 Future Opportunities and Challenges for L&D

16.5.1 Future Proofing L&D in Organisations

16.5.2 Green L&D, Sustainability and Society

16.5.3 L&D and Human Dignity at Work

Conclusion

Summary

Review Questions

Strategic L&D in Action 16

Case Study 16.3: 21st Century Skills and Digital Skills: Is L&D ready?

Further Reading

Bibliography

Glossary

About the Authors

Index

FIGURES

1.1 Research Insight: Why Might Organisations Adopt Some L&D Practices and Reject Others? Possible Explanations

2.1 An Open Systems Model of L&D

2.2 Garavan’s Model: A Contextual and Dynamic Framework for Strategic Human Resource Development

2.3 Future Models of L&D in Organisations

2.4 The Business Partner Model Applied to L&D

2.5 The Four Constellations of L&D in Organisations

2.6 The Elements of Effective L&D Governance

3.1 L&D Strategy and Organisation Strategy: Key Assumptions, Consequences and Implications

3.2 Approaches to Aligning L&D Strategy with Organisational Strategy

3.3 Key Dimensions of L&D Strategy and Influencing Factors

3.4 Developing an Adaptive, Agile and Ambidextrous Organisation through L&D Practice

3.5 Guiding Questions for L&D Professionals in Developing a L&D Strategy

3.6 Levels of Senior Management Support for Training and Development

3.7 How to Engage and Ensure the Support of Line Managers for L&D

3.8 Key Trends in L&D Expenditure

4.1 The New Dimensions of Reflection

4.2 Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model

4.3 Using Metaphors to Understand the Learning Process in Organisations

4.4 A Stage Model of Training Motivation

4.5 A Model of Training Engagement

5.1 The L&D Needs Analysis Process

5.2 Examples of L&D Triggers in Organisations

5.3 Mager & Pipe’s Performance Analysis Flowchart for Determining Solutions to Performance Problems

5.4 Can a Performance Issue Can Be Addressed through L&D?

5.5 Making Sense of Job Performance Gaps

5.6 L&D Needs Analysis: Guidelines for Practice

6.1 The Make or Buy Decision and L&D

6.2 The ADDIE Model Updated

6.3 The Purposes of Learning Objectives

6.4 Questions to Consider When Setting Learning Objectives

6.5 The CRAMP Model and Learning Methods

6.6 Guidelines for Sequencing the Content of Training Programmes

6.7 Reasons for Interactivity in the Design of Digital Learning Solutions

6.8 Guidelines for Digital Learning Content, Graphics and Multimedia Development

6.9 Blended Learning in Organisations

6.10 Potential Combinations of a Blended Approach

6.11 The Components of a Flipped Classroom

6.12 Factors that Influence the Selection of Blended Learning Approaches in Organisations

6.13 Examples of Course Learning Objectives, with Corresponding Technology-enabled Pre-work and In-class Activities

7.1 The Spectrum of L&D Methods

7.2 The L&D Methods Matrix and Proximity to Business Strategy

8.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of a Near-the-job Training Strategy

8.2 A Conceptual Framework of Informal Learning in the Workplace

8.3 Concepts and Versions of Micro Learning

8.4 Components of the 70:20:10 Model

9.1 An Instructional-style Framework

9.2 The Cone of Learning

9.3 Skills for Effective Facilitation

9.4 Training Room Seating Arrangements

9.5 Types of Problem Participants in the Classroom

10.1 The Spectrum of Social Interaction among Learners and Trainers

10.2 Research Guidelines for eLearning Design

10.3 Designing Interactive Websites for Training

10.4 The Characteristics of Mobile Learning

10.5 The Modern Learner in Organisations

11.1 Individual and Collective Learning Processes

11.2 The Characteristics of the New Learning Organisation

11.3 What the New Social Learning Is Not

11.4 Guidelines for Effective Organisational Dialogue

11.5 The Advocacy / Inquiry Matrix

11.6 World Café Guidelines: Seven Design Principles

12.1 The Baldwin & Ford Training Transfer Model

12.2 The Kontoghiorghes Model

12.3 Management Support for Training Transfer

12.4 The Five As Model of Self-managed Training Transfer

12.5 A Training Transfer Audit Checklist

13.1 The New World Kirkpatrick Model

13.2 The Integrated Model of Training Evaluation and Effectiveness

13.3 The Multilevel Training Evaluation Taxonomy

13.4 The Omnidirectional Training Evaluation Framework

13.5 Process Evaluation: Prior to Delivery and During Delivery of Training

13.6 Open and Closed Questions

13.7 Examples of Subjective Tests to Assess Learning

13.8 Anderson’s Value of Learning Model

13.9 Training Evaluation Data Collection Designs

14.1 A Training and Development Cost Classification Matrix

14.2 Calculating the Rate of Return on Investment

14.3 Calculating Return on Investment for L&D: Questions for L&D Specialists

14.4 Preparing a Cost-Benefit Analysis: Key Guidelines

14.5 The Training Impact Measurement Framework

14.6 Big Data Golden Rules for L&D

14.7 The Bersin Learning Business Maturity Model

15.1 What Is Self-development?

15.2 The Spectrum of L&D Roles in Organisations

15.3 The ACADMIES Framework for L&D

15.4 The Challenges for L&D as Facilitator of Transformational Learning

15.5 A Continuing Professional Development Framework for L&D Practitioners

15.6 Motivations for Pursuing Professional Certification

15.7 Dimensions of Professionalism and L&D Professionals

15.8 An Ethical Lens for L&D Practitioners

16.1 L&D and the Global Mindset

16.2 The Scope of Continuous Independent Learning

16.3 A Framework for Learners as Co-creators of Learning in Organisations

16.4 New Learning Innovations with Web 4.0

16.5 Can We Future-proof the Workforce Using Neuroscience?

TABLES

1.1 Classic Definitions of Learning

1.2 A Brief History of L&D in Organisations

2.1 Key Success Factors and Limitations of a Shared Services Approach to L&D

4.1 Pedagogy and Andragogy: Knowles’ Approaches Compared

4.2 Multiple Intelligences: Implications for Learners and Trainers

5.1 Questions to Ask about Problems and Opportunities

5.2 Stakeholder Perceptions of Organisational Problems: Analysis Levels

5.3 Involving Organisational Actors in the Needs Analysis Process

6.1 Key L&D Design Decision Areas and Questions

6.2 Examples of Ineffective and Effective Learning Objectives

6.3 Domains and Levels of Learning

7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Formal Classroom Off-the-job Learning Methods

7.2 The Advantages and Disadvantages of Group-oriented Experiential Learning Methods

8.1 Enhancing the Effectiveness of Development Discussions

8.2 Key Trends in Blended Learning

9.1 Differences between Instruction and Facilitation

9.2 Problems Encountered in Instruction and Facilitation Roles

9.3 Trainee Group Maturity and Trainer Style

9.4 Strategies to Enhance Trainer Presence

9.5 Presentation Instructional Strategies

9.6 Materials for Effective Training

10.1 Definitions of Technology-based Training Methods

10.2 The American Psychological Association’s Learner-centred Psychological Principles

10.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of eLearning

10.4 Differences between eLearning and Mobile Learning

10.5 Key Dimensions of Gamification in the Context of Instructional Design

10.6 Differences between Gamification and Games-based Learning

10.7 The Advantages and Disadvantages of Learning Management Systems

10.8 Web-based Training: Learner, L&D Specialists and Organisational Perspectives

11.1 Indicators of Community of Practice

11.2 Social Media Descriptions, Uses, Pros and Cons

11.3 Strategies to Encourage Purposeful Advocacy and Inquiry and to Deal with an Impasse

12.1 What We Know about Training Transfer

12.2 Learning Transfer Environment Factors

12.3 The Characteristics of a Positive Training Transfer Environment

12.4 Actions to Support Training Transfer

13.1 Differences between Process and Outcome Evaluation

13.2 Evaluation and Links to Similar Terms and Processes Used in L&D

13.3 Stakeholder Contributions and Inducements to Evaluation of L&D

13.4 The Application of the Kirkpatrick Model to L&D Practice

13.5 Design Criteria and Structure for Reaction Questionnaire Construction

13.6 The Characteristics of Different Data Collection Methods

14.1 The Design / Time Ratio for Different Types of Learning Activities

14.2 Examples of Cost-effectiveness Evaluation for Different Training Activities in Organisations

14.3 Different Types of Learning Analytics

14.4 Benchmarks, Metrics and Data Analytics Contrasted

15.1 The Relationship between Competencies and L&D Roles in Organisations

15.2 The Dimensions of Foundational Competencies and L&D Expertise

15.3 A Principles-based Approach – Advantages and Implementation

16.1 The Four Worlds of Work: Implications for L&D

16.2 Generational Differences, Learning Preferences, Motivation to Learn and Learning Methods

16.3 Comparing Whole Training Room, Differentiation, Personalisation and Individualisation Approaches to Corporate Training

16.4 The Key Dimensions of Learning 1.0, 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0

16.5 Strengths and Weaknesses of Training and Development Pay-back Clauses

16.6 Capabilities, Competencies and Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes for a Sustainability Strategy

ABBREVIATIONS

AC abstract conceptualisation

ACT Adaptive Character of Thought model

ADDIE Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation model

AE active experimentation

AHRD Academy of Human Resource Development

AI artificial intelligence

AMO ability-motivation-opportunity

AO Advanced Operations division (Stryker)

API application programming interface

AR augmented reality

ATI aptitude-treatment interaction

BCR benefit cost ratio

BMT behaviour modelling training

BPO business process outsourcing

BRIC Brazil, Russia, India, and China

CAD computer aided design

CAM computer aided manufacturing

CE concrete experience

CEO chief executive officer

CIPD Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development

CITI Citigroup Inc.

CLO chief learning officer

CMS course management system

COMA Cognitive, Organisational Environment, Motivation, Attitudes model

COOC corporate open online course

CoP community of practice

CPD continuous professional development

CSR corporate social responsibility

CSS cascading style sheet

DOT Development Opportunity Tool (Intel)

EESS economic, environmental and social sustainability

EPSS eLearning performance support system

ERPG ethnocentric, polycentric, regiocentric and geocentric

G2G Googler-to-Googler (Google)

GDM Global Delivery Model (Infosys)

HCN home country national

HPWP high performance work practice

HQ headquarters

HR human resource

HRD human resource development

HRD human resources department

HRM human resources management

HTMLS hypertext mark-up language server-side

ICT information and communication technology

IDP individual development plan

IITD Irish Institute of Training and Development

IMTEE Integrated Model of Training Evaluation and Effectiveness

INGO international nongovernmental organisation

IP intellectual property

ISD instructional system design

IT information technology

J&J Johnson & Johnson

JIT job instruction training

JIT Just-in-time

KBI key business indicator

KPI key performance indicator

KSA knowledge, skills and abilities

L&D learning and development

LCMS learning content management system

LMS learning management system

LTE learning transfer environment

LTSI Learning Transfer System Inventory

M&A mergers and acquisitions

M&S Marks & Spencer

MNC multinational corporation

MOOC massive open online course

OHP overhead projector (slides)

OWL Web ontology language

PCN parent country national

PDF portable document format

Q&A question and answer

RBV resource-based view

RO reflective observation

ROE return on expectation

ROI return on investment

SDL self-directed learning

SEED School Earth Education

SHRD strategic human resource development

SME subject matter expert

SOP standard operating procedure(s)

SPARQL Semantic protocol and RDF query language

SPOC small private online course

SSW social semantic web

STOP Safety Training Observation Program (DuPont)

TCN third country national

TOOT Time out of Time

TWI Training within Industry

UN United Nations

US United States (of America)

USA United States of America

VARK Visual-Auditory-Read-Kinaesthetic model

VLE virtual learning environment

VLS virtual learning system

VR virtual reality

XML extensive mark-up language

FOREWORD

Business leaders know that today’s fast-accelerating changes in technology, longevity, work practices, and business models offer both challenges and opportunities. While some jobs are disappearing due to advances in technology, many more are being transformed and thus creating the need for continuous, lifelong development. In response to this evolving landscape, Learning and Development (L&D) professionals are prioritising strategic imperatives such as transitioning to the future of work, the redesign of work and jobs, and reskilling the workforce to support the ongoing evolution of organisations.

It is imperative that L&D professionals shift their focus from the dominant paradigms that the profession has relied on for the past 50 years and examine more contemporary ways in which to improve their practice as professionals. The reality is that the future has started. We need to invest in breakthrough thinking and innovation to sustain success and face up to the challenges of the new business, customer and market paradigms. Encouraging an organisation’s workforce to learn and to change and adapt to the needs of the organisation is now more important than ever in order to respond to the requirements of the workplace of the future. L&D professionals have a major role to play in helping organisations to ensure that they have a workforce that is capable of adapting to those changing requirements.

Accordingly, as the leading professional body for L&D professionals in Ireland, the Irish Institute of Training and Development (IITD) commissioned LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS: STRATEGY, EVIDENCE and PRACTICE to reflect the changing landscape of L&D. Our intent in commissioning this book was to support L&D professionals by sharing the most up-to-date thinking to assist them in the development of capability throughout their organisations. The book aims to develop L&D professionals so that they deliver impactful learning interventions that develop staff by thinking innovatively about how work is organised and ensuring the best alignment of people and technology with the right opportunities within their organisations. It considers both formal and informal learning and looks at the contribution of the L&D function to organisational and financial performance. Reflecting the latest thinking in the field of L&D, it provides a theoretically-sound text written with the user in mind, whether that user is a practitioner or a student. Included in each chapter, to help the reader to relate the text to practical application, are case studies that show the theory in action. Critically, the book looks at the future of L&D and the competencies that are required into the future as well as examining ethical considerations in the field of L&D.

We at IITD are very pleased to be associated with this book and would like to extend our sincere thanks to all who have been involved in producing such an up-to-date, reader-friendly book which is aimed at all those who work in, or indeed have an interest, in the area of L&D. In particular, we applaud the work of Professor Thomas Garavan in conducting the research that underpins the book and also would like to thank all the member companies of IITD and other L&D professionals who participated in the research.

We believe that LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS: STRATEGY, EVIDENCE and PRACTICE will set the agenda for L&D professionals in the future. We hope that you will find it an invaluable resource.

Sinead Heneghan CEO, IITD

PREFACE

L&D is an important organisational human resource (HR) practice that many organisations, regardless of size, sector or country, offer to employees to help them to learn (Bell et al., 2017). It has emerged as one of the highest HR practice areas in terms of financial resource investment by organisations (Garavan et al., 2019a) and there is an expectation from senior management and business owners that L&D will make a strategic contribution to organisational performance (Kraiger, Passmore & Rebelo, 2015), including the financial bottom line. The landscape or context of L&D in organisations is changing at a fast pace. These changes are driven by technological innovations and by changing learner expectations, which together create both the requirement to customise content and the opportunity to deliver L&D using multiple delivery modalities (Armstrong & Taylor, 2014). L&D professionals therefore are under pressure to focus on strategic L&D issues that go beyond the traditional operational role that they typically perform in organisations (Garavan et al., 2019a). L&D professionals also are expected by professional bodies and international organisations to manage L&D in an ethical and sustainable way and to consider employees, organisational and environmental perspectives.

The aim of this book is to provide a comprehensive and thematic overview of the thinking, research evidence and practice of strategic L&D in organisations. We cover both strategic and operational practice dimensions, targeting students and practitioners. The book will help students of L&D and HRM to acquire a deep understanding of the field; it also will inform the practice of L&D professionals by identifying the best available evidence on L&D practices and by providing them with guidelines for action. While the book is titled LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS: STRATEGY, EVIDENCE and PRACTICE, we build on the core operational building blocks of L&D and go beyond these to take a strategic perspective, emphasising the contribution of L&D to organisational and financial performance. In preparing this book, we have accessed the latest research and thinking within the field, supplementing this research with real-life case examples drawn from organisations across the world. We cover the full spectrum of L&D activities but emphasise throughout the need to align formal and informal L&D with business objectives. We use the term ‘Learning and Development’ as our title; however, in some chapters, we use the term ‘Training’ to refer to the knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAs) required to perform a role or job task. Since many L&D activities in organisations focus on training rather than development, we consider training to be a subset of L&D. The term ‘Learning and Development’ therefore captures formal training and development activities, collective learning and informal learning (Whelan & Duvernet, 2015).

Pedagogical Features

We have sought throughout this book to present key concepts in an accessible, student-friendly and practitioner-friendly manner. Throughout each chapter, we have incorporated a number of pedagogical features to enable the student or practitioner to apply the concepts to organisational life, link theory to practice and signpost readers to the best available evidence on L&D practices. Specifically:

•Throughout each chapter, we provide succinct and concise explanations of Key Concepts found within the field of L&D;

•We include Critical Reflection exercises that help the reader to engage with key concepts and debates within the field;

•We provide a Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice feature to summarise the results of meta-analysis and systematic / integrative reviews in a manner that is accessible to practitioners;

•In each chapter, we provide two Case Studies as examples of application to practice relevant to the chapter’s content – and, the end of each chapter, we provide a longer case study with questions that provide an opportunity for classroom-based and practitioner discussion;

•Each chapter contains recommended Further Reading that allows the reader to enhance their understanding of the chapter content;

•We provide a Glossary at the end of the book that enables students and practitioners to have easy access to definitions of the key concepts used throughout the book, as well as other important L&D terms.

Structure

We have divided the book into three key sections, which cover different aspects of L&D:

•Section One: Concepts and Context of L&D in Organisations: Chapter 1 discusses the concepts of L&D, the external and internal context of L&D and the key dimensions of strategic L&D in organisations. Chapters 2 and 3 introduce readers to the key theoretical and conceptual foundations of strategic L&D, and its key components, including strategy processes, roles and resources;

•Section Two: Theory and Practice of L&D: Chapters 4 to 14 explain the main theories, concepts, models and practices that underpin strategic L&D in organisations. This section covers a wide range of issues that L&D practitioners need to better understand the design, delivery and evaluation of L&D in organisations;

•Section Three: Developing the L&D Professional and the Future Role of L&D: Chapters 15 and 16 cover the changing roles of L&D practitioners in organisations, their competence development, professional ethics and the future of strategic L&D, including potential new roles and forms of L&D.

An overview of the contents of each chapter follows:

•Chapter 1 outlines and discusses the core concepts of learning, training and development and related concepts, such as human resource development (HRD) and workplace learning. The chapter provides a brief outline of the historical development of L&D in organisations and discusses key external and internal changes that shape the way that organisations manage strategic L&D. These external trends include global competition and the global labour market, changing technology and the changing workforce, as well as trends such as corporate social responsibility (CSR), ethics and sustainability. Key internal context elements include business strategy, organisational structure and culture. The chapter also documents key changes in managing people, including changing careers, the changing nature of jobs, work design, employee contracting, talent management and the role of personal initiative. It then explains the scope, nature and boundaries of strategic L&D. The chapter concludes with a discussion of strategic L&D and evaluates the case for investment in L&D in organisations;

•Chapter 2 focuses on strategic L&D, its contribution, structures and roles. The chapter begins with a discussion of theoretical approaches to understanding the contribution of L&D in organisations, including the universalistic, contingency and configurational approaches. It also considers important theories that provide justification for strategic L&D, including human capital theory, the resource-based view (RBV), the behavioural approach, ability-motivation-opportunity (AMO) theory and attribution theory. The chapter provides a discussion of commonly used frameworks available to conceptualise L&D in organisations, such as the systematic model, open systems model and a number of more contemporary models. The chapter concludes with a consideration of alternative ways to structure L&D and the governance dimensions of L&D in organisations;

•Chapter 3 continues the theme of strategic L&D. The chapter gives particular emphasis to the role of L&D in shaping and influencing business strategy. It provides a detailed discussion of content, process and implementation issues when formulating and implementing L&D strategy in organisations. Reference is made to the key resource issues, including financial, physical and human resources, and the chapter concludes with a discussion of learning culture and climate;

•Chapter 4 addresses the topic of adult learning, which is critical to understanding the design of formal L&D activities. The chapter begins with a discussion of the concept of learning outcomes and then reviews different categorisations of learning outcomes, going on to provide a short overview of the evolution of adult learning theory. Reference is made to different categories of learning theory and their implications for the design of formal L&D activities. We also introduce the concepts of learning styles and multiple intelligences and explain different theories related to learning style. The chapter discusses the concepts of training motivation and engagement and highlights misconceptions about adult learning. It concludes with a discussion of the implications of adult learning theory for the design of L&D;

•Chapter 5 provides a detailed discussion of the initial stage of the L&D process, which is concerned with identifying key learning gaps or opportunities. We discuss the key components of the needs identification / assessment process and the different approaches that organisations and L&D practitioners use. The different levels of needs analysis are described, as well as the full spectrum of analysis that needs to be carried out, including who should be involved, the types of methods that are appropriate at different levels of analysis and the challenges involved in conducting needs assessment;

•Chapter 6 introduces the concept of learning design, specifically in the context of classroom, digital, blended and flipped learning solutions, and the key stages of the learning design process. The chapter considers the purchase or design decision as a key outcome of the learning needs analysis process, followed by a discussion of four learning design models and their key components. We provide a detailed discussion and evaluation of the development of learning objectives and how these help the development of learning content. The initial components of the chapter focus on the design of classroom learning; however, we then address the design of digital, blended and flipped learning solutions. The chapter explains the learning design decision associated with each type of design content;

•Chapter 7 focuses on the use of off-the-job methods to achieve learning objectives. The chapter first discusses the spectrum of learning methods, ranging from taught to blended, and how they are linked to organisational performance. It provides a discussion of learning methods and highlights the advantages, disadvantages and applications of off-the-job methods;

•Chapter 8 focuses on structured and informal on-the-job learning methods and the different methods that can be used in organisations. The chapter provides a detailed evaluation of structured on-the-job training methods, such as job construction training, development discussion and planning, job performance aids, job shadowing, internships and apprenticeships. It then focuses on informal on-thejob L&D methods, such as learning through observation, learning from mistakes and learning through day-to-day experiences. This chapter gives more detailed consideration to blended learning and the 70:20:10 model and concludes with a discussion of when on-the-job methods are appropriate;

•Chapter 9 describes, discusses and evaluates the issues around the implementation and delivery of L&D in organisations. The chapter initially discusses the differences between instruction and facilitation and the skills that are required of L&D professionals in each context. We then provide a detailed discussion of the role of learning theory in the context of the delivery of training, looking at pre-training, during training and post-training. We also discuss the decisions that need to be made to develop lesson plans and the skills involved in delivering training through both facilitation and instruction approaches. The latter parts of the chapter consider the creation of a positive training environment and the challenges encountered in both facilitation and instruction;

•Chapter 10 provides an introduction to the use of technology to deliver L&D in organisations. The chapter begins with definitions and explanations of different technology-based training methods and the reasons for the shift to technology-based training. We then provide a detailed discussion of the characteristics of eLearning, massive open online courses (MOOCs), mobile learning (mLearning), gamification, computer-based simulations, virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR). The chapter discusses the characteristics and application of learning management systems (LMSs) and concludes with a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of technology-based training;

•Chapter 11 focuses on social, collaborative and collective learning in organisations. We first define a number of concepts and discuss learning theory issues associated with this type of learning. Then we discuss different types of social and collective learning, including learning in teams, communities of practice (CoPs) and the learning organisation. The chapter provides a detailed discussion of evaluation of the role of social media in social and collective learning and the different types of social media that can be used by L&D professionals. It concludes with a discussion of collective learning processes, including learning circles, organisational dialogue, open space technology, World Café and the conditions facilitating social, collaborative and collective learning;

•Chapter 12 provides an introduction to the transfer of learning in organisations. The chapter defines and describes different types of training transfer and describes different models that depict the training transfer process. We then discuss the types of strategies that L&D professionals can use to facilitate learning transfer, focusing on the roles of managers, learners and L&D professionals. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the factors that L&D professionals should consider when auditing the L&D environment;

•Chapter 13 examines the evaluation of L&D. The chapter begins with an explanation of different evaluation concepts and how they differ from related concepts and processes. We then discuss the case for the evaluation of learning and describe different models of evaluation, including the Kirkpatrick, COMA and Integrated models. The chapter considers the complex issues that are required to measure and evaluate job behaviour and organisational results, as well as the types of data collection designs that can be used;

•Chapter 14 introduces the concepts of return on investment (ROI) and learning analytics. We describe and evaluate different models or approaches to ROI and the complexities of this type of evaluation. The chapter looks at the concept of learning analytics and the different analytics that can be used by L&D professionals. It concludes with a discussion of Big Data and its application to L&D, as well as the issues that organisations should consider when implementing both ROI and L&D data analytics;

•Chapter 15 focuses on changing L&D roles in organisations, competence development and professional ethics. The chapter begins with a discussion of changing role expectations and the spectrum of L&D roles found in organisations. We then discuss the competencies of L&D professionals and how these can be developed. We give particular focus to the concept of continuous professional development (CPD) and then focus on the nature of professionalism, ethics and the L&D practitioner. We conclude the chapter by outlining different approaches to making decisions about ethical dilemmas in L&D.;

•Chapter 16 , the final chapter of the book, considers future challenges and possible directions for L&D in organisations. We review scenarios related to the future world of work and their implications for L&D. The chapter then focuses on the challenges of delivering L&D in a global context, the impact of national culture on L&D and changing perspectives on L&D in organisations, and highlights a number of future opportunities and challenges facing L&D.

In addition, we have incorporated a range of features to make this book as useful and accessible as possible:

•Learning Objectives: Introducing every chapter, learning objectives outline the main themes that will be covered, clearly identifying what you can expect to learn. These bulleted lists also can be used to review your learning and to effectively plan your revision;

•Key Concepts: Make sure you understand the language of strategic L&D by reading the key concepts. These useful terms are listed at the start of chapters and revisited within the chapter for a full explanation;

•Case Studies: Contemporary and varied case studies from the global business world, with accompanying questions, illustrate the concepts discussed in the chapter and prompt you to analyse the L&D practices of a range of organisations;

•Critical Reflection : Pause and reflect on the material being discussed with these provocative critical reflection boxes, designed to develop your essential critical thinking skills and to deepen your understanding of the theory and practices of L&D;

•Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice: Here, we report the best available scientific research evidence on the topic(s) discussed in the chapter. These panels are designed to provide you with the best available scientific evidence on which to strategise and design interventions based on evidence rather than hope, guesswork or opinion. They provide a synthesis of, and accessibility to, the evidence to enable evidence-based action by L&D professionals;

•Review Questions: Reinforce your learning, check your understanding, and aid your revision with these end-of-chapter review questions, covering the main themes and issues raised in the chapter;

•Strategic L&D in Action: Research, evaluate and make your own strategic decisions based on fictional scenarios and real businesses’ approaches to L&D with these applied exercises at the end of every chapter;

•End-of-chapter Case Studies : Longer, more integrative case studies at the end of chapters provide further opportunity to apply what you have learnt from the chapter to a real business example. The accompanying case study questions facilitate reflection and discussion;

•Further Reading: Seminal books and journal articles that have contributed to the field of strategic L&D are listed at the end of chapters. These offer the opportunity to read around a topic and to broaden your understanding or provide useful leads for coursework and assignments;

•Glossary: A comprehensive glossary is provided at the end of the book for easy accessibility to definitions of all of the key concepts outlined in the book.

Acknowledgements

Many people have helped us both directly and indirectly in writing this book. We all would like to thank the IITD and Oak Tree Press. We also would like to thank all the reviewers who provided detailed and useful feedback on each of the chapters. We are most grateful to Kim O’Mahony, who typed and formatted the book. There are several additional people that each author would like to thank.

Thomas Garavan

Thomas Garavan would like to thank a number of people who helped to sustain the efforts required to produce this book. First, I wish to thank my coauthors Carole, Amanda and Claire for your support and insightful contributions. Second, I wish to record my personal thanks to five individuals who were instrumental to getting this book completed:

•Kim O’Mahony, University of Limerick, who typed each chapter of this book;

•Dr Clodagh Butler, University of Limerick, who prepared the Bibliography – a very significant job of work;

•Michael Gaffney, Talent and Career Assessment, who helped with the preparation of the Glossary ;

•Sinead Heneghan, CEO, Irish Institute of Training and Development, for her unstinting support during the preparation of the book;

•Brian O’Kane, Oak Tree Press, both for his support for the book and the excellent production of the final text.

I would like to personally thank a number of academic peers who have been a continual support of inspiration and support to me over the years:

•Dr Colette Darcy, National College of Ireland;

•Dr David McGuire, Glasgow Caledonian University;

•Dr Hussain Alhejji, Australian College of Kuwait;

•Dr Martin McCracken, University of Ulster.

•Dr Valerie Anderson, University of Portsmouth Business School;

•Professor Alma McCarthy, National University of Ireland Galway;

•Professor Ann Munro, Professor Paul Lynch, Professor Maura Sheehan, Professor Sally Smyth, Professor Sandra Watson, Dr Britta Heidl, Dr Holly Patrick, Dr Kristeen Grant, Dr Janice McMillan, Dr Jennifer O’Neill, Dr Laura Gerard, Dr Leslie McLean, Dr Michael Palowski, Dr Rowan Steele and Norma Dannunzio-Green, Edinburgh Napier Business School;

•Professor Anthony McDonnell, Dr Joan Buckley, Dr Ronan Carbery and Dr Ultan Sherman, University College Cork;

•Professor David Collings, Dublin City University;

•Professor Gary McLean, McLean Global;

•Professor Jim Stewart, Liverpool John Moores University;

•Professor Jonathan Winterton, University of Huddersfield;

•Professor Mark Saunders, University of Birmingham;

•Professor Nicholas Clarke, EADE, Barcelona and University of Loughborough;

•Professor Patrick Gunnigle, Professor Michael Morley, Professor Eamonn Murphy, Dr Christine Cross, Dr Noreen Heraty, Dr Fergal O’Brien and Bridie Barnicle, University of Limerick;

•Professor Roziah Mohd Rasdi, Universiti Putra Malaysia;

I would like to thank a number of L&D and HR practitioners who have greatly influenced my ways of thinking about learning in organisations:

•Aidan Lawrence, Hewlett Packard;

•Ann Marie Gill, Chill Insurance;

•Darina Gallagher, Emma O’Connor, Orla Maher, Tom McMahon, Pat Naughton, Patricia Nolan and Maria Travers, ESB;

•Judi Kinnane, L&D Consultant;

•Julie O’Mahony, Geraldine Garvey and Henning Carstens, Stryker;

•Mary Carroll; CARITAS College;

•Noreen Clifford, Nova Partners;

•Paula O’Sullivan, Fexco;

•Sean Kane, KaneHR.

Finally, I would like to thank my family: in particular, my mother Margaret, my siblings James, PJ, Gerard, Rita and Mary B and the wider Garavan and Daly families too numerous to mention.

Carole Hogan

I would like to thank my husband Martin, my sons, Hugh and Brian, and my daughter-in-law Madeline Regan O’Donoghue for their support and encouragement.

Amanda Cahir-O’Donnell

There are so many people in my life who have influenced me profoundly as leaders, coaches, mentors, trainers, facilitators and authors. I would like to acknowledge those that have shared my learning journey.

First and foremost, thanks to my husband, Keelan O’Donnell, who always inspires me and encourages me to reach for the stars. Thank you to Conor, my son, who demonstrates remarkable bravery and resilience every day. Thanks to my parents, Carmel and TJ, for motivating my natural curiosity and love of learning. And thanks to all my extended family and valued friends for your unwavering support.

I would like to extend a special acknowledgement to Sarah Mac Tigue, TIO Consulting, for her ongoing assistance, professionalism and commitment to excellence. I have learned so much over the past 14 years from all of my colleagues and associates at TIO Consulting Ltd (www.tioconsulting.ie) – especially Kevin Mac Court and Patrick Sutton.

There are many clients, coaches and consultants who I have partnered with, and learned from, along the way, including:

•Alison Hodge, Alison Hodge Associates;

•Annette Kent, Clinical Director, Fire1 Foundry;

•Catherine Moroney, Head of Business Banking Market, AIB;

•Dave Kirwan, Managing Director, UK Home, Centrica;

•Dawn O’Driscoll, Group HR Director, Ervia;

•Eamonn Sinnott, Vice President and General Manager, and Anne Kelleher, HR Director, Intel Ireland;

•Edna Murdoch, Director, Coaching Supervision Academy;

•Elaine McGleenan, Director, Learning and Organisational Development, KPMG;

•Fiona Burke, former Country Manager, Abbott Ireland;

•Gay White, Gay White Consulting;

•Geraldine Ruane, COO, and Antoinette Quinn, HR Director, TCD;

•Helena Downey, consultant and facilitator;

•Isolde Norris, KOI Business Coaching and Consulting Ltd.;

•Jennifer Feighan, CEO, INDI;

•John Conway, Senior Partner, Game Change;

•Julie Dowsett, Postgraduate and Executive Education, School of Agriculture and Food Science, UCD;

•Julie Johnson, CEO, Julie Johnson Consulting (Netherlands);

•Julie Jones, marketing, communication and development consultant;

•Lorna Cross, CFO, BAM Ireland;

•Lorraine McCullen, Head of HR, Bord Gáis Energy;

•Lynne Cooper, Director, Change Perspectives;

•Margaret Swords, CEO, Auteven Hospital, Kilkenny;

•Mark Downey, Speech and Presence Ltd.;

•Mike Quinn, Chief Operating Officer, WElink Energy;

•Ms. Liz Shouldice, Head of People Strategy & Transformation, daa;

•Pamela Fay, Business Performance Perspectives;

•Paul Neeson, Director Retail Ireland, Aer Rianta International;

•Pauline Louth, Knowledge Partner, Beauchamps Solicitors;

•Sarah Coughlan, Mariam Dadabhay, Sheelagh Daly and Karen Hernandez, Enterprise Ireland;

•Sarah Downing, Director of Human Resources, Goodbody Stockbrokers;

•Sean Fitzpatrick, Group HR Director, and Steve Bowcott, CEO, John Sisk & Son Ltd;

•Sinead Heneghan, Director, IITD;

•Suzanne Eade, CFO, HRI;

•Tom Finlay, Tom Finlay Consultancy;

•Yvonne Harris, Head of Customer Operations / Director, Irish Water;

Claire Gubbins

My energetic determined baby boy, Donnacha, born mid-book project, who gave me space to complete it. I dedicate my contribution to him and his part in it getting finished.

My incredible little girl, Anabel, who epitomises learning in all its definitions. She astounds me with what she learns and how she develops.

My husband, Eamon Collins, for his patience, support and belief in all I do. My parents, Mary and John, brother Paul and sister Una for their constant belief in me.

Professor Denise Rousseau of Carnegie Mellon University, who introduced me to, and educated me about, evidence-based decision-making and best available evidence. Eric Barends, Barbara Janssen, Rob Briner and the Centre for Evidence-based Management, who enhanced my knowledge.

My DCU Business School colleagues, who have supported my endeavours around learning, knowledge and evidence-based management and embraced it across the school; in particular, Anne, Barbara and the MBA teaching team. Special mention to my colleagues and friends in the HR and Psychology group, who don’t just support such endeavours, but who also work so hard and yet make time to make DCU Business School a great place to work: Yseult, Lisa, Margaret, Aurora, Patrick, Brian, Dave, Edel, Finian, Melrona, John, Janine, Eugene and also the coffee gang and Maura.

To Coco for the serenity!

Section 1

CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS OF L&D IN ORGANISATIONS

CHAPTER 1

L&D: CONCEPTS, CONTEXT AND PROCESSES

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

•Understand the meaning of the terms ‘learning’ and ‘development’ and how they differ from related terms;

•Describe the historical evolution of L&D in organisations;

•Critically evaluate the external and internal context of L&D in organisations;

•Understand the meaning of strategic L&D and its key components;

•Understand and evaluate changing perspectives on managing people in organisations;

•Understand why organisations adopt some L&D practices and not others.

Key Concepts

•Learning.

•Training.

•Development.

•Education.

•Instruction.

•Teaching.

•Human resource development.

•Workplace learning.

•Globalisation.

•Corporate social responsibility.

•Sustainability.

•Business ethics.

•Offshoring.

•Outposting.

•Onshoring.

•Strategic alignment.

•Organisation culture.

•Organisation climate.

•Organisation mindset

•High performance work practices.

•Strategic L&D.

1.1 Introduction

L&D has emerged as an important practice in organisations worldwide. It consists of a set of practices concerned with ensuring that organisations have knowledgeable, skilled and engaged employees who can contribute to the achievement of organisational objectives. It is one of the most commonly-used HR practices in organisations and each year organisations spend significant amounts of money on formal training and development activities (Association for Talent Development, 2018). Through investment in L&D, organisations enhance their employee and organisational human capital which, in turn, contributes to organisational performance. This chapter:

•Provides an overview of L&D as a subject area;

•Highlights how it differs from related areas such as HRD and workplace learning;

•Maps out the changing external and internal context of L&D;

•Highlights the key components and characteristics of a strategic approach to L&D.

The chapter begins with key definitions and terms and how they relate to each other, followed by a discussion of the historical evaluation of L&D in organisations. The chapter then considers the changing context of L&D globally and explains the different contexts that influence L&D practices. Next, it describes and evaluates the core components of a strategic approach to L&D and outlines the case for investment in these practices.

1.2 Defining L&D

There is debate about whether researchers and practitioners should use the term ‘learning’ rather than ‘training’. The debate is discipline-related, with researchers from industrial psychology showing a preference for the term ‘training’ (Whelan & Duvernet, 2017) and researchers and practitioners from HRM showing a preference for the term ‘learning’. The difference in emphasis can be explained as follows: training as a concept is associated with formal classroom-based training activities (Bell et al., 2017); in contrast, both research and practice in HRM acknowledge that employees and workers acquire KSAs through both formal training activities and informal learning processes. In this book, we use the term ‘learning’ because it covers both formal and informal learning in organisations. We distinguish learning from training as follows: learning is a process through which employees acquire KSAs, whereas training is one formal approach to develop KSAs (Noe, Clarke & Klein, 2014).

The term ‘learning and development’ for the purposes of this book is sufficiently broad to incorporate:

•Formal training activities conducted in classroom settings, on-the-job or online;

•Development and education activities that prepare employees for future career goals and roles;

•Social, collective and organisational learning.

We conceptualise training as an organisational activity within the broader domain of L&D and so L&D is both an