Challenges and Prospects in African Education Systems

By Soji Oni

Challenges and Prospects in African Education System: The general idea this book is trying to disseminate is to inform readers about the compelling challenges and prospects in African system of education. As we all know, when issues of Africa educational system is raised, the first set of thoughts that come to mind is decline in standard, deterioration of facilities, examination malpractices, cult crises or school-based violence, shortage of teachers, underqualified teachers, and poor teachers performance, which results in poor learning standards, lack of classroom discipline that is exacerbated by insufficient resources and inadequate infrastructure, failure of appropriate inspection and monitoring, and confusion caused by changing curricula without proper communication and training. All these have led to massive demoralization and disillusionment among teachers and a negative and worsening perception of African system of education. This, therefore, calls for in-depth analysis aimed at tutoring every stakeholder in education on how their action and inactions have individually and collectively contributed to the collapsing state of education in Africa. However, the prospect is that Africas recovery and sustainable development can only be guaranteed through expansion and sustenance of both quantitative and qualitativeof the continents stock of human capital through education. In order for education to realize its key role in development, it must be provided to the younger segments of African society as quickly as human and financial resources permit, with the ultimate goal of developing a comprehensive, meaningful and sustainable system of education at all levels and for all age groups. This is the message that this book puts across in the six knitted sections.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Trafford Publishing
• Release date: Nov 14, 2013
• ISBN: 9781490715766

Soji Oni

Soji Oni, PhD, a Fulbright scholar, is a lecturer in the Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education, University of Lagos, Nigeria. He specializes in sociology of education and foundation studies in education. His area of research focus includes social problems in education, social change in education, social deviances/social disorganizations in education with particular focus on students’ secret cult in Nigeria. He has published widely in these areas. He has a lot of publication to his credit, which includes chapters in books; articles that have appeared in national and international learned journals based in Nigeria, USA, India, South Africa, UNESCO, Japan, Botswana, Turkey, Ghana, Netherland, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Malaysia, Tanzania, Canada, South Korea, Senegal, Philippines, and Poland. He is the secretary and managing editor of Journal of Educational Review of Higher Education Research and Policy Network. Editorial board member, Journal of Early Childhood and Primary Education, Department of Early Childhood and Primary Education, Nnamid Azikwe University, Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria. He is also an associate editor of Nigerian Journal of Sociology of Education of the Association of Sociologists of Education of Nigeria, an associate editor of Spo leczenstwo i Rodzina (Society and Family Journal), published by Faculty of Social Science, Stalowa, Wola, the John Paul II Catholic University, Lublin, Poland. Editorial board member, East African Journal of Educational Research and Policy (EAJERP), published by Higher Education Research and Policy Network (HERPNET) Africa; and managing editor of Lagos Education Review, Journal of the Faculty of Education, University of Lagos, Nigeria. Associate editor of Liceo Journal of Higher Education Philippines and also editor-in-chief of Journal of Social Sciences, published by International Association of Multidisciplinary Research in Philippine. In 2003 to 2004, he got the Fulbright Junior Visiting Scholar Fellowship to Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, USA. His PhD thesis also won the 2006 Babs Fafunwa Foundation Award as the best in Nigerian Faculties of Education. On May 2013, he emerged as the winner of Best Accomplished African Educational Researcher (Awarded by Association for the Development of Education in Africa- ADEA/African Development Institute–ADI/Korea Trust Fund), 2011/2012 edition. He is also a workshop training consultant to Nigeria Port Authority on leadership training, capacity building, and team building.

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© Copyright 2013 Edited by : Soji Oni (Ph.D.).

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written prior permission of the author.

Consulting Editors:

1. Leketi Makalela, is a Professor of linguistic in the Division of Laguages, Literacies and Literature, Wits School of Education, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa. [e-mail]

2. Nowakowski, Piotr T. (Ph.D.) is an Assistant Professor at the Off-Campus Faculty of Social Sciences in Stalowa Wola, The John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, Poland. [e-mail]

Proof Reading: Peter Crane (Ph.D), Faculty of Education, University of West Indices, Jamaica.

isbn: 978-1-4907-1575-9 (sc)

isbn: 978-1-4907-1577-3 (hc)

isbn: 978-1-4907-1576-6 (e)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2013918053

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Contents

Dedication

Foreword

Preface

SECTION 1 : CHALLENGES IN PRIMARY

AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

1.   Psycho-Educational Approach: A key for Managing Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder among Primary School Pupils in Nigeria

2.   The Down Play of Drama and Theatre Instruction in the Primary Education

3.   Students’ Academic Performance in Secondary Schools in Nigeria: Challenges and Prospects

4.   Islamic Studies Teachers’ Use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for the Teaching of Islamic Studies in Lagos State Secondary Schools

5.   Planning of Secondary Education in Nigeria: Challenges and Prospects

6.   Teacher-Pupil Ratio, Teacher Productivity and Students’ Educational Achievement in Secondary Schools

SECTION 2 : CHALLENGES IN

ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION

7.   Entrepreneurial Education for Peace and Sustainable Development

8.   Developing Entrepreneurial Skills of Youths in Tertiary Institutions through Management of Family Human Energy Resource

9.   Improving Vocational and Technical Education in Nigeria for National Development

SECTION 3: CHALLENGES IN TEACHER EDUCATION

10.   Evaluation of Learning Outcomes: Implications for School Teachers

11.   Repositioning the Teacher for Improved Effectiveness in Nigerian Schools

12.   Curbing the Unethical Practice in Teaching Profession

13.   Major Constraints to Effective Educational Administration

14.   An Appraisal of Innovative Instructional Methods and Strategies for Social Studies Programme in Nigeria

15.   Preparing Teacher Education and Training for Africa in the 21st Century

16.   Provision and Utilization of Physical: The Challenges of Teacher’s Productivity in Nigeria School System

17.   Educational Significance of Secondary School Teachers’ Initial Conceptions of the Teaching Profession in Central Uganda

18.   Supervision: Concept, Development and Challenges in Nigeria

SECTION 4: CHALLENGES IN HIGHER EDUCATION

19.   Transforming Nigeria Economy through Sustainable Financing of Higher Education

20.   Grappling with Gender Inequity in University Education in Uganda

21.   Funding Issues: The Problems of Higher Education Development in Nigeria

22.   Problems and Prospects of Contemporary Nigerian Higher Educational System

23.   Nigeria University Education: Challenges and Way Forward to Economic Growth and Development

24.   Higher Education and National Development

25.   Transforming the University System in Nigeria: Issues and Prospects

26.   Higher Education as s Tool for the Realization of Africa’s Development

27.   University Education in Nigeria and National Development: Problems and Prospects

28.   Professional Development Needs of Academic Staff in Tertiary Institutions: Trends and Prospects

29.   Transparency and Accountability Measures in Public Universities in Lagos, Nigeria

30.   Community Participation in Higher Education Policy Mobilization and Implementation in Cross River, Nigeria

31.   Preparation for and Appropriate Conduct of Examinations at the Tertiary Level of Education

32.   Differential Psycho-Social Factors as Predictors of Female Academics’ Career Growth and Leadership Positions in South West Nigerian Universities

33.   Implementation and Impact of the University Community Partnership Approach to the Delivery of Higher Education Programmes: the case of the BIFA Programme at Makerere University, Uganda

34.   Modeling Students’ Learning Behaviour in a Nigerian University

35.   Collaboration: A Benchmark in the Management of Universities

36.   Demand for Postgraduate Education at the University of Ibadan and its Influencing Factors

SECTION 5: SOCIO-ACADEMIC CHALLENGES

37.   The Interplay between Adolescent, Peer Influence and Cultism among Nigerian Students

38.   School Violence in Nigeria: Extent, Some Causal Factors, Characteristics of Troubled Students and Prevention Curricula

39.   Rebel with a Cause: Trivial but Potent Students’ Grievances in Kenyan Secondary Schools

40.   Examination Malpractice and Strategies for Eradication through Classroom Management

41.   Sexuality Education as a Panacea for Sexual Abuse and Victimization of Female Secondary School Students in Nigeria

42.   Self Control Approaches to the Treatment of Test Anxiety and Examination Malpractices

43.   Examination Malpractice: The Monster that Plagues the Nigerian Educational System

44.   Effects of Single Parenthood on the Academic Performance of Students

SECTION 6: DIVERSIFICATION CHALLENGES

45.   Possible Effect of the World Economic Crisis on Education in Africa

46.   Impact of Infrastructure Provision on Poverty Alleviation in Nigerian Universities

47.   Description of Lagos State Adult Citizens’ Awareness of Available Compensatory Education in Nigerian Societies

48.   Identifying and Supporting the Talented Child through Organized School Sports Competitions and Physical Education Lessons towards Operation Catch them Young Strategy

49.   Adaptation of Global Perspectives and National Priority: The Goal of 2004 National Policy on Education

50.   Human Capital Development and the Education Sector in Nigeria: Imperative of Transformation Agenda

51.   Language Comprehension, Reading and Writing; Understanding the Psychological Dynamics

52.   Globalization and the Place of Work

53.   Education and National Development in Nigeria: A Contemporary Analysis

54.   Planning Education for Rural Community Development in Nigeria

55.   Planning Challenges in Nigerian System of Education

56.   Shifting Lenses: Translanguaging and Multilingualism in African Education

57.   Education for Sustainable Development in Africa

58.   Fostering Effective Citizenry for National Development through Life Long Learning in Nigeria

59.   About Higher Education in Nigeria

Afterword

About the Contributors

Dedication

The dedication of this book to the following edudite scholars is but a token expression of appreciation and thanks to them, and to acknowledge their achievement of academic excellence through doggedness and industry. They have over the decades played significant roles at every time of my academic and social life.

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Dr. Kola Babarinde

A loving and amiable brother, outstanding boss, rare mentor, unique motivator, unassuming teacher, stickler to standard and humble scholar, who prepared me for the academic voyage, sharpened and shaped my scholarly writing and thinking and still monitor my academic activities till date and never tired to rebuke me with love when need be, who I have enjoyed his reception, consistent and insistent on quality in academic service delivery. I have been greatly influenced by his excemplary life of diligence and forthrightness.

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Prof. Joel Babalola

Who has always been a very wonderful and respected father, accomplished scholar, uncommon counsellor, esteemed role model, valued mentor, rare motivator, practically religious, a devoted family man, visionary, humane, encourager and trusted academic father to many. In his words; Soji, you are not doing badly, you can do better, keep working and always take care of your health, and get closer to your God. I have learnt a lot from him and he is one of the senior colleagues, who God used and still using to guide my life. He has positively influenced me, particularly his exceptional compassion for the spriritual and professional growth of those of us who are close to him.

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Prof. PAI Obanya

I refered to him as my academic great grand father, because he taught some of the teachers that taught my teachers. An admirable intellectual giant, A die-hard academic, known as the grand sage of education in Africa and the most widely published author on Education in Africa. A man with extraordinary intellectual production, which has been provocative and wonderful. I have been greatly influenced by his work, zeal, dedication, astute academic leadership, the velocity of his hard work, particularly his intensity in Dreaming, Living and Doing Education, a man that has always encouraged me to work harder and will always remember to send relevant information to me and make most of his presentations available to me, a unique and unparalleled icon of education in Africa and most outstanding mentor of educational researchers in Africa.

Foreword

Challenges and Prospects in African Education Systems is relevant and timely at the stage when Africa is vigorously seeking to take back its position in the global arena to fight poverty and disease, and to advance infrastructure with the overall objective of emancipating a people whose rights and privileges were historically downtrodden. Framed in this light, the expectations of what education can do are high, while the socio-political realities for sustained transformation are varied and far more complex than in any part of the world.

In this volume, the challenges of education in Africa, historical and current, are treated expertly from diverse voices of African scholars while its prospects promise a manifesto for African education in the future. I should quickly add that at the centre of every independence, education takes precedence as it shapes ways of thinking, a consciousness that is not value-neutral. As we evaluate education in Africa, therefore, we should measure its success or failure through the way this consciousness is redefined by education systems to meet the needs of the people. It is in this context that lessons from our foremost scholars such as Ngugi Wa Thiongo’s Decolonising the Mind, Steve Biko’s Black Consciousness and Walter Rodney’s The Making of an African Intellectual remain constant reminders to African intellectuals, educational institutions and leaders not to lose focus of the bigger picture: liberation of the mind. The sentiments expressed in these texts remain even more relevant today as African thought is urgently needed to define the character of African education, to carve pathways to self-determination and to contribute to global issues of knowledge, learning and development. This volume takes strides into bringing thoughts and practices from diverse African countries to provide a panoramic view of education without borders or boundaries on the African continent.

This publication also comes out in an important era of the 21st century where the purpose of education is dramatically shifting and where mobility within workforce has, unwittingly, increased. Whereas specialist knowledge is important to a reasonable degree, we learn that specialist education is no longer the primary goal of education in the 21st century. These global changes present opportunities for Africa to reshape its systems and become a global leader. I stand convinced that the aim of education in Africa is not to equip an African graduate with facts, but rather with a predisposition to learn and to so independently (life-long learning). Shifting to skill-based education implies a concerted investment in curricula that equip learners with finest skills similar to being an effective researcher such as critical thinking, creativity, logical approach, self-evaluation and communication. The call for the 21st century is to prepare students to be versatile so that they can deal with interdisciplinary issues, work in teams with complementary skills and work together effectively and creatively. This is as true anywhere else as it is in Africa, but Africa needs to pace up to realizing this educational goal.

The developments in global landscape and projections for the future all point out to a different kind of education: research led education. This means investing in rich community of cutting edge researchers to enable students to learn in research-like ways with highest academic riquor so that the students come to think, analyze and practise as the best researchers do. Such a form of education allows practitioners to teach ‘ahead of textbook’, which involves exploiting research rich environment where students learn about research (research-led); they develop research skills (research oriented); they are involved in research discussions (Research tutored) and they undertake research enquiry (research-based learning) in every course or subject at every level of study. The question of course is whether our teacher-education programmes are capable of producing didactically thinking teachers who will deal with needs of the 21st century learners in Africa.

The book volume is encouraging in the manner that it addresses curriculum development in African education systems in details. To date, most of the curricula are imbued by the logic that knowledge is taught or acquired in a step-by-step progression, with learners moving up the ladder till it is too difficult for them (performance-based curriculum). Several chapters in the volume bring to light curricula that integrate learning areas with weak boundaries between subjects (Competence-based). The third option is the pragmatic approach where curriculum is never considered value-neutral. Here, curriculum either empowers or domesticates as we learn from the seminal work of Paulo Freire’s Pedagogy of the Oppressed, where a child needs to be enabled to read both the word and the world (Context-sensitive).

Linguistic and cultural diversity in African education systems is still an under-theorized subject. Although some countries like South Africa make cases for linguistic pluralism, our understanding of languages is influenced by positivist ideas of European ideals of one-nation-one language. As a result of this ideology, we have seen the role of African teachers taking a ‘policing’ role in language and content classrooms to guard against contamination of one language by the other. This view of multilingualism is monoglossic in nature where languages are viewed as discrete units that are capable of being placed in boxes. In reality, the linguistic and cultural boundaries in most African nation states are blurred due to dynamic multilingual practices on the ground. This volume has treated the issues of diversity to acknowledge the plural nature of the African societies—diversity as a resource, not an impediment.

Overall, I find this book well conceived, timely and relevant to the current issues on the African education systems in the 21st century. Education practitioners, students and scholars will find this volume useful to understanding the realities of African education systems. I therefore amen all the individual contributions to this important volume on African education.

Professor Leketi Makalela

Editor in Chief: South African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies Journal

University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa

September, 2013.

Preface

Education is one of the most far-reaching requirements for development, alleviating poverty, improving health outcomes and quality of life, reducing gender and social disparities, and enhancing economic productivity. It contributes to economic growth and societal stability through developing individuals equipped with cognitive and life skills necessary for sustaining the livelihood, and contributing to the productive sector.

However, since independence, African states have faced numerous problems in implementing an educational policy that would encourage economic and social development curriculum, pedagogical problems, economic and political problems intermixed. The difficulties confronting most African governments, have also been attributed to be basically political. Africa’s problems have no single explanation and differ considerably from country to another. Most observers attribute the downward divergence of the continent in the past few decades to a number of factors, including: poor national economic policies; the prevalence of autocratic and corrupt governments; frequent civil and regional conflicts; and the challenges posed by the environment, which leaves Africa vulnerable to infectious disease and makes it more difficult to produce adequate food or trade with the global economy and difficult to provide quality education to her citizenry.

The goal of this book is to update readers on challenges and prospects in African system of education. As we all know that, when issues of Africa system education is raised; the first set of thoughts that come to mind is decline in standard, deterioration of facilities, examination malpractices; cult crises or school based violence, shortage of teachers, under qualified teachers and poor teachers’ performance, which results in poor learning standards, lack of classroom discipline that is exacerbated by insufficient resources and inadequate infrastructure. On a government level, challenges have been caused by a failure of appropriate inspection and monitoring, and confusion caused by changing curricula without proper communication and training. All these have led to massive demoralization and disillusionment among teachers and a negative and worsening perception of the teaching profession. This therefore calls for in-depth analysis aimed at tutoring every stakeholder in education on how their action and inactions have individually and collectively contributed to the collapsing state of education in Africa.

Africa’s recovery and sustainable development will therefore depend on many important factors, including the expansion—both quantitative and qualitative—of the continent’s stock of human capital through education. In order for education to realize its key role in development, its major development objectives must be carried out. Firstly, education must be provided to the younger segments of African society as quickly as human and financial resources permit, with the ultimate goal of developing a comprehensive system of education at all levels and for all age groups. Secondly, emphasis must be placed on a more equitable distribution of educational opportunities and on the reduction of existing inequalities based on sex, economic status, and geography. Thirdly, the attainment of greater internal efficiency of the educational system, as a first steptowards improved quality of education, should be a priority in order to reduce the misuse of resources caused by students dropping out or repeating grades. Fourthly, a greater external efficiency of the educational system, through an increase in the relevance of schooling to the job market, is also desirable so that students are equipped with the knowledge and skills needed to find employment; and fifthly, Africa should work toward the development and maintenance of an institutional capacity to formulate and carry out educational policy and to plan, analyze, manage, and evaluate education and training programmes and projects at all levels. Education can no longer be reviewed simply as a means of raising political and social consciousness. It is an integral component of an overall development effort. On the basis of the recognition that the development of country’s human resources is essential to its prosperity and growth and to effective use of its physical resources, African governments must be willing to extend education to all segments of their societies, particularly the younger generation. This can be accomplished primarily through an effort to improve education opportunities. Many successes have been registered in this respect but there is still room for more to be done. Educational opportunities in Africa could be improved still further by making it easier for all children, particularly in rural areas, to attend school and by equalizing the enrolment ratios between rural and urban children, poor and wealthier children, and between sexes. These efforts are often hampered not only by limitations on financial and human resources but also by geographical and demographic conditions, which make it difficult and costly to construct schools, supply learning materials, and provide qualified teachers.

This book has also posited that there is no single solution to Africa’s education challenges. For the continent to realize its full potential and take advantage of its human and natural resource base for development there must be holistic reforms of the approach to education. Such reforms must be tailored to suit the specific needs of individual countries. Regional and sub-regional actors must recognise that not all African countries have the same educational challenges. For instance while some countries in Sub-Saharan Africa are still battling with school enrollment, others have achieved significantly high rates and are now more focused on improving the quality of education or addressing gender gaps in enrolment. These disparities make it necessary to review the challenges of individual countries in order to develop programmes that are effective in promoting education in such countries. This is not to say, regional interventions are impossible or unnecessary. What is clear is that regional bodies can only provide guiding principles that will ensure the utilization of education for the continent’s overall growth. Such guiding principles would include recommendations on effective research and policy formulation, improved investment in education infrastructure and service provision, gender mainstreaming, monitoring and evaluation, Vocational and Technical Education, curriculum development, training, etc. Ultimately, the success or otherwise of achieving this lies within the willingness of the individual countries to vigorous pursue reforms along these lines.

It is the desire to make readers appreciate the challenges and prospects in African education system that made the book to be arranged under six sections. Section 1 consists of challenges in primary and secondary education, Section 2 discusses challenges in entrepreneurial education, while Section 3 raises issues of challenges in teacher education. Section 4 points out challenges in higher education, Section 5 is about other socio-academic challenges, while Section 6 talks about diversification challenges in education.

It is particularly heartening that contributors to this monumental production have come from range of institutions—universities, colleges of education and research institutes across African countries like; Nigeria, Uganda, Kenya, South Africa, and Ghana. It is also noteworthy that two additional papers were contributed by scholars outside Africa continent, specifically from Poland. Their contributions and understanding of the trouble I put them through in ensuring they meet up with the deadline and my importunate consistent insistent for necessary corrections after review and other processes, is really commendable and appreciated.

Readers will surely observe that the content of this book is indeed a broader look at the several relevant challenges facing African education system, some of which have become perennial and some still alive. Although the ideas expressed in each of the chapters are entirely those of the authors, all the chapters are rich in terms of issue and depth of analysis, originality and well-rsearched, while other chapters succinctly organized and aptly presented conceptual papers, all of which identified cogent and important challenges facing African education system and profer laudable practical solutions.

The book is therefore unreservedly recommended to all good will persons, who have the interest in proferring solutions to myriads of challenges facing African education systems. The book should also be a must read for all who are involved in the business of education in Africa and they will find it a valuable work kit.

Finally, Special thanks goes to the reviwers of the papers, consulting editors and the proof readers used during the editorial process. I equally thank my children, Ayomi, Olami and Opemi for never disturbing me with their unnecessary distractions, which would have inhibited the production of this and other academic assignments, and My wife, Titilayo Soji-Oni for her usual painstaking attention in reading, correcting and even criticizing some aspects of the work, again, she has been a very wonderful companion who is ever ready to assist in any area of my career both physically and spiritually, Baby, I Love you dearly. To the Almighty God, the Immortal, invisible, eternal, indistinqushable and ominipontent, be honour, glory and worship now and forever.

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Soji Oni

2013

Section 1

Challenges in Primary and Secondary Education

Psycho-Educational Approach:

A key for Managing Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder among Primary School Pupils in Nigeria

Morayo Jimoh

A ttention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) has been described as a common childhood disorder affecting approximately five percent of primary school-aged children all over the world.Similar to many crisis areas for children and young people, there has been disagreement about the nature of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and controversy about the help which should be provided for these children. This scenario has led to inquiries about how educational psychologists can assess the often complex needs of children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and what management strategies can be offered to parents, teachers and other direct contact people.

ADHD is by definition a pervasive disorder that touches every aspect of the child’s life. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) has long been seen as a prerequisite of significant learning difficulties (Strauss &Lehtinen, 1947). The disorder is characterised by severe difficulties in one or more of three areas; inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. Affected children with their high incidence of other associated difficulties (including global and specific cognitive disabilities, problems of motor control, conduct and emotional disorders and social interactional difficulties) have a disorder that not only constitutes a personal ‘handicap’ but is particularly notable in causing secondary dysfunction in the child’s educational, family and social domains.

There are literally dozens of hypothesized causes of ADHD, some of which range from the obvious (e.g., perinatal insult) to the absurd (e.g., fluorescent lighting) (Herskovitz&Rosman, 1982). However, most hypothesized causes focus on neurobiological aspects such as central nervous system dysfunction and metabolic anomalies in neurotransmitters (e.g., dopamine, norepinepherine, and serotonin) (Goldstein & Goldstein, 1990; Hunt et al give names of other authors., 1987; Zametkin, 1989; Zametkin&Rapoport, 1986). In a widely heralded study, Zametkin and his colleagues investigated the cerebral glucose metabolism levels in a sample of adult ADHD and control subjects and concluded that a lower rate of cerebral glucose metabolism was a likely factor in attentional problems (Zametkin et al give names of other author., 1990).

Hence, it is obvious that the successful engagement of children with ADHD in educational settings is exceptionally difficult. Experts in the field often comment about the struggle children face in the classroom, both behaviourally and academically, and the effects these struggles have on life outcomes as well as on interpersonal relationships with educators, parents and peers (DuPaul, 1995). Consequently, in evaluating and developing strategies for managing the behaviour of pupils who have ADHD, educational psychologists help parents and teachers to focus both on the child’s individual difficulties and the way in which the child’s school or home environment interacts with those difficulties to help or hinder further progress. This is seen as the most effective way of understanding the complex nature of ADHD and managing any resulting learning difficulties.

The Concept of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

ADHD is one of the most prevalent childhood and adolescent behavioural disorders affecting children worldwide. ADHD can be said to be a diagnostic label used to describe children who present with developmentally atypical degrees of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity This condition if left undiagnosed and managed, can result in significant long term impairments across three primary settings: academic, social and occupational functioning (APA, 1994).

Typically, children with ADHD exhibit uncommon persistent behaviours lasting at least six months with an onset before seven years of age although symptoms may emerge prematurely, for example as early as age three (APA, 1994). Many children are not diagnosed until commencing formal schooling due to the more prominent manifestation of ADHD symptoms in the school setting. It is important to note that children may also exhibit several of the predefined symptoms of ADHD as part of normal maturation; thus a standard framework for an accurate diagnosis of ADHD is needed.

The diagnostic criteria for ADHD are defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fourth Edition-Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR) (APA, 1994). This manual regards ADHD as a behavioural Disorder that usually presents in childhood (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 1994). The disorder is characterised by three main features; inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity (APA, 1994). A child with inattentive symptoms might find it difficult to sustain attention, particularly when effort is required (APA, 1994). Furthermore, these difficulties appear to fluctuate, and may be dependent on the setting.

Research has shown that children with attention problems are nevertheless able to sustain their attention on tasks that are novel and on those tasks that they enjoy.

Hyperactivity means that an individual is extremely overactive. Behaviours indicative of hyperactivity include having difficulty staying seated and being constantly on the go (APA, 1994). Whilst hyperactivity is not necessary for an ADHD diagnosis, it is commonly found in children diagnosed with the disorder. Impulsivity is closely related to overactivity, and although these two symptoms are regarded as separate features, they are currently diagnosed together. That is, children cannot be diagnosed with hyperactive problems only, but must also be diagnosed with impulsivity. Impulsivity may be exhibited by a child being inpatient, blurting out answers before questions have fully been asked, interrupting others’ conversations, not waiting for their turn in class or in other play activities, and speaking without first considering the consequences of what they are about to say (APA, 1994).

Although each of these three symptoms (inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity) are characteristic of ADHD, they do not all need to be present for a child to be diagnosed with the disorder (APA, 1994). For example, a child might be diagnosed with ADHD if he has severe inattention problems, and yet has no diffiuclties with overactivty or impulsivity. Similarly, a child with hyperactive/impulsive symptoms and no attention difficulties, might also be diagnosed with ADHD.

Educational Psychologists are comfortable with the term ADHD since this description does not negate the importance of an educational and psychological assessment which considers both the child’s problems and the learning environment. However, people working within education may choose to use the longer non medical term ‘children with attention difficulties, with or without over-activity and impulsivity’.

Conceptually, ADHD is a tautological disorder—children have ADHD because they exhibit a certain number of behaviours and they exhibit the behaviours because they have ADHD. Thus, ADHD literally defines itself—the symptoms are the syndrome. This tautology would not pose a serious problem if there were objective indicators of ADHD. However, because a diagnosis is based solely on a clinician’s subjective judgement, it is difficult to differentiate ADHD from other disorders that bear a superficial resemblance to it. For example, Weinberg and Brumback (1992) found that out of 100 children who were consecutively referred to a behaviour neurology program, 80 per cent met the DSM-III-R diagnostic criteria for ADHD.

ADHD has been, and continues to be, conceptualized from a medical-disease perspective at the micro-level which focuses solely on characteristics inherent to the individual (Whalen &Henker, 1980). This micro focus on ADHD as a neurobiological disorder ignores the fact that what defines an individual’s behaviour as disordered is, at least in part, a process that is socially negotiated and socially defined. This assertion is congruent with the definition of the word ‘abnormal’. According to Wicks-Nelson and Israel (1991), Ab means away, or from, while normal refers to the average or standard. Thus, abnormal simply means something that deviates from the average". Of course, this definition requires determining what standards will be used to determine whether deviance exists—a process that is very much affected by social and cultural factors. As Wakefield (1992) noted, the very concept of disorder exists in a grey area between the given natural world and the constructed social world. Thus, disorders are subjected to social forces, may elicit differing social responses, and may serve socially defined ends (Noblit et al., 1991).

Overview of the History of Attention Deficit Hyperractivity Disorder (ADHD)

Methodical enquiry of this condition began in the 1940s with an emphasis upon motor and behavioural symptoms (hyperactivity). For example, Strauss and Lehtinen (1947) referred to ‘Brain Injured Child Syndrome’, and the subsequent concept of ‘Minimal Brain Dysfunction’ was used to describe cases whose symptoms appeared similar to the effects of central nervous system injury despite no observable evidence of such injury.

It was not until the 1970s that the problem of attention as well as hyperactive behaviour was highlighted. Douglas (1972) described how the so-called hyperactive child may have deficits in sustained attention and in impulse control as much as in motor restlessness. It has become increasingly accepted that difficulties or deficits in attention may be accompanied by hypoactive, normal or hyperactive behaviour.

Evidence from studies indicate that this condition occurs in three to five per cent of the population (US DoE, 1991), 80 per cent of whom are boys (Barkley, 1987) and 60 per cent of these having associated hyperactivity (Hinshaw, 1994). Moreover, a review of ADHD research by Hinshaw (1994) indicateD that there is no single cause (or set of causes) which underlies the development of this disorder; aetiological features may be biological, psychological, and social (Pennington &Ozonoff, 1996; Taylor, 1994a).

Shachar (1991) has summarized the key problem areas in ADHD as follows:

•   Ambiguity in the three characteristic behaviours which make up ADHD (inattention; hyperactivity; impulsivity).

•   Behaviours like inattention and hyperactivity may have many causes.

•   Differentiation between normal and abnormal levels of activity may be arbitrary.

•   Age and gender appear to be related to activity and attention.

•   Research emphasis upon samples of children referred to specialist clinics may introduce bias elements.

Gender issues are particularly relevant since the frequency of an ADHD diagnosis may remain ‘skewed’ to those children whose disabilities or difficulties are overt and impact most immediately upon other children and their teachers, i.e. males. Girls are more likely than boys to experience an attentional difficulty without the hyperactive or acting-out behaviour and may, therefore, not be identified as experiencing an ADHD problem (Barkley, 1987).

Attention Deficit Hyperractivity Disorder (ADHD) and Academic Performance

Educational psychologists agree to a possible link between ADHD and specific learning difficulties. Many of the criteria for diagnosing ADHD (American Psychiatric Association, 1994) resemble those which may be applied to dyslexia viz:

•   may fail to pay close attention to details and make careless mistakes in school work;

•   may have difficulty in organizing tasks;

•   may not seem to take in what is said, etc.

The Guidelines for Good Practice (EDUCATIONAL PSCHOLOGISTIS, 1996b) suggested that the starting point for helping children with attention difficulties and/or over-activity and impulsivity should be those that Educational Psychologists outlined in Section 3.62 and 3.69 of the Code of Practice on the Identification and Assessment of Special Educational Needs (DfE, 1994). They stated that schools should have:

•   taken action to make both the curriculum and the school day accessible to the child by alerting all teachers to the child’s particular needs;

•   formulated, monitored and evaluated, in conjunction with outside agencies, individual education plans;

•   sought a constructive relationship with the child’s parents/carers, encouraging them to participate in their child’s education, including visiting the school on a regular basis;

•   closely monitored the child’s emotional and behavioural responses to his/her learning difficulties and, if necessary, provided help to reduce anxiety and enhance self-esteem;

•   the parents’ consent, notified and sought the assistance of the school doctor and/or the child’s GP as appropriate.

Difficulties Experienced by Children with ADHD

Research has generally focussed on the academic and social difficulties students with ADHD experience within educational settings (DuPaul& Stoner, 1994). It has been shown that children with ADHD often experience a myriad of difficulties at school related to the core symptoms of the disorder, inattention, impulsivity, and overactivity. However, there may be gender differences regarding the severity of these problems.

In addition, or possibly as a result of ADHD-related problems, children with ADHD frequently experience lowered academic performance, are kept down, or are suspended or expelled from school (APA, 1994; Barkley, 1987). A child with ADHD may exhibit various behaviour problems within the classroom which are dependent on their ADHD symptom profile. For example, a child with inattentive symptoms might have difficulty following teacher instructions and rules, staying on task and completing set work. Whereas, a child experiencing impulsivity might call out in class without permission or talk with other students at inappropriate times. Finally, an overactive child might have problems staying seated, playing with objects not related to the set task (e.g., playing with a pencil when instructed to read silently), rocking in chairs, and repetitively tapping their hands or feet (DuPaul& Stoner, 1994). Most children with ADHD, however, exhibit behaviour problems related to at leasttwo of these three core symptoms (APA, 1994).

Given these behaviours, it is not surprising that these children have a lot of trouble at school (Barkley, 1987). The academic performance of students with ADHD is often compromised because of their difficulties with sustaining attention (DuPaul, 1995). Pupils with ADHD usually find it difficult to concentrate long enough to complete set tasks. Pupils’ academic performance may further be impaired by an inherent tendency to be disorganised—to misplace books, stationary and other materials which they need to complete their school work (APA, 1994; DuPaul& Stoner, 1994). Moreover, being overactive and impulsive in the classroom can mean that the student with ADHD is not paying attention to the task at hand, and this may result in the child misunderstanding what is required to complete that task, and subsequent failure to satisfactorily complete it. Luckily however, the behavioural difficulties observed in children with ADHD can often be reduced when novel and interesting tasks are presented, especially when the task are easy or repetitive (Green, 1995), and when the tasks are presented to the children at a level they understand (DuPaul& Stoner, 1994).

ADHD-related behaviours are disruptive in the classroom, not only to teachers, but also to other students. This may be one of the reasons ADHD children have such a difficult time forming and maintaining friendships with peers. Research has consistently shown that children with ADHD tend to have a lot of difficulty with peer relationships. According to Gresham and coleagues, who are they/ what year? up to 70% of children with ADHD experience unreciprocated friendships with peers. Furthermore, typically developing children, report not wanting to befriend their peers with ADHD, particularly those who experience difficulties with overactivity (DuPaul& Stoner, 1994).

There are a number of possible reasons for ADHD children’s difficulty with peers. It may be that children with ADHD tend to exhibit behaviours considered controlling, trouble making and aggressive (Hinshaw&Erhardt, 1991). These behaviours are likely to be perceived by peers as negative, and thus prompt rejection from play activities. Secondly, children with ADHD may have difficulty reading social cues from their peers, and respond inappropriately as a result (Hinshaw, 1994). Children with ADHD are not purposefully nasty. In fact, these children often have low self-esteem, report feeling lonely and sad about not being liked by their peers, and desperately want to fit in. Finally, research has also suggested that teachers’ attitudes and behaviour toward a student with ADHD can impact on other students’ perceptions of that child (Hinshaw, 1994)

The bi-directional link between behavioural and scholastic performance means that progress in both areas may be negatively influenced by changes in expectation on the part of teachers, peers or others who interact with the children, and by changes in self expectation. Moreover, without effective treatment, children with ADHD may face a bleak future. A large number of ADHD adolescents develop substance abuse disorders, and approximately 25 percent of adolescents with ADHD drop out of high school. As a consequence of school attrition, many of these young people will find it difficult to obtain well paid and high status positions in the workforce, and often will be forced to work in lower paid positions involving mundane and repetitive jobs—jobs which ADHD adults will often find difficult to succeed at.

Assessment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity (ADHD)

There are a variety of assessments used to help diagnose ADHD; interviews, behaviour checklists, medical assessments, and ancillary tests. Furthermore, there are numerous treatment options available, including psychological, biological, and alternative treatments. Whilst the aetiology of ADHD is unclear, there have been a number of possible causes put forth, including psychological, biological, and environmental suggestions.

Traditionally, a diagnosis is required to provide information on the best treatment. In a functional approach, various individual-specific and environmental variables are first manipulated (i.e., intervention) to acquire assessment information on the most efficacious course of treatment. Functional assessment can be characterized as a series of hypotheses-testing sequences (Elliott et al., give name of other authors1987). Hypotheses are generated based on individual-specific and environmental factors that prevent the performance of appropriate behaviour. Manipulations are then conducted to either confirm or refute the hypotheses.

In the conceptualization, individual-specific factors involve behavioural, cognitive, and self-control deficiencies (Maag& Reid, 1994). Behavioral deficiencies refer to the requisite skills necessary to perform certain behaviours. Determining a behavioural deficiency involves a fairly straightforward skill-testing process: subcomponents of the target skill are operationally defined, the child is instructed to perform the skill, a powerful reinforcer is identified to increase the child’s motivation to perform the skill, and a clinician observes his performance. The child probably has a behavioural deficiency if he/she fails to perform the target skill. If a child possesses the requisite skills but still fails to perform the appropriate behaviour, then cognitive and self-control factors are targeted for remediation. Cognitive deficiencies can either involve distortions (irrational beliefs) or deficiencies (erroneous problem solving strategies). Self-control deficiencies involve the inability of children to monitor and evaluate their behaviour.

Environmental variables include antecedents, consequences, and outcomes. Antecedents precede behaviour and serve as a prompt, or cue, for the occurrence of certain behaviours. Consequences transpire after a behaviour and serve to either maintain, increase, or decrease the future probability of the behaviour occurring. Outcomes refer to the intent of behaviour. When a child acts, even with behaviours considered to be inappropriate, he/she does so to achieve a result. The desired result, or outcome, can be viewed as the intent of the behaviour. Even inappropriate behaviours are used to achieve outcomes desired by all individuals. For example, a child may become aggressive in order to gain acceptance with his/her peers. The desire to affiliate with others is quite appropriate; although the form (i.e. aggression) is inappropriate.

In functional assessment these variables would be manipulated and their effects on behaviour observed. For example, if the desired outcome of aggression was affiliation, the child would be taught an appropriate behaviour to affiliate with his/her peers while observing the number of aggressive episodes. If the number of aggressive episodes decreases, the hypothesis that the desired outcome was affiliation would be confirmed. If aggression continued, then another outcome would be hypothesized and tested. All et al citation should be listed fully in the first citation

Functional assessment techniques have been used for many years to ameliorate problems such as aggression, self-injurious behaviour, disruptions, non-compliance, opposition, off-task, and tantrums (e.g., Carr & Durand, 1985; Childs et al., 1994; Cooper et al give full names of other authors., 1992). Although functional approaches were originally developed for individuals with developmental disabilities (Dunlap et al., 1993), there is a body of literature documenting the effectiveness of functional approaches with children with either an ADHD diagnosis or behaviours typical of ADHD (Childs et al., 1994; Cooper et al., 1992; DePaepe et al., 1996; Dunlap et al., 1994; Kern et al., 1994; Umbreit, 1995). Moreover, the functional approach is practical and can be effectively implemented in a variety of settings including school classrooms (Cooper et al., 1990; Northrup et al., 1991; Sasso et al., 1992).

For Educational Psychologists, adoption of a multi-faceted approach to assessment is recommended. This includes classroom observation, looking at pupils’ work portfolios, consideration of their social skills, listening and attention levels, basic attainments, verbal skills and of course a consideration of the pupil’s perspective of his or her learning difficulties. Analysis of these data can provide the basis for a consultative discussion between the Educational Psychologists, school doctor, teachers and parents and lead to a clearer understanding of the pupil’s assets and difficulties and the production of an agreed individual education plan.

Strategies for managing Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Psychological treatments for ADHD have been used for almost 50 years and research has generally shown them to be efficacious in the treatment of the disorder. In particular, behavioural parent training and classroom behaviour modification have well-established empirical support, as do behavioural classroom interventions such as reinforcement, punishment, and planned ignoring. Like parents, teachers can successfully use these strategies to manage the behaviour of children with ADHD.

Behavioural classroom interventions can be separated into three main categories; cognitive-behavioural (CB) interventions, contingency management (CM), and intensive packaged behavioural treatments. Verbal self-instructions, problem-solving training, cognitive modelling, self monitoring, and reinforcement, are all examples of CB treatments. A typical CB intervention lasts for several weekly sessions, and involves a therapist teaching the individual appropriate ways of managing behaviour problems by understanding the links between thoughts and actions.

Whilst most research has indicated that CB interventions are efficacious for children with ADHD, there is evidence that these strategies do not always provide clinically significant improvement to children’s ADHD symptoms or academic performance. Research has suggested that social skills training, problem-solving training, and peer tutoring, appear to have greater clinical efficacy than standard CB interventions that are less practical in nature particularly in helping children with ADHD form and maintain friendships with their peers (Hinshaw&Erhardt, 1991; DuPaul& Stoner, 1994).

CM strategies are more labour intensive than CB interventions and are more effective as well. Whilst the techniques used in CM and CB interventions are identical, the setting for training differs across these two categories. In CB treatments, professionals tend to hold sessions in an office, where strategies are taught to all involved. In contrast, CM sessions are held in the setting in which the problematic behaviours occur. For example, educational strategies are taught in the classroom, and parent training is conducted in the family home.

Conclusion

In the field of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Educational Psychologists have much to offer. The Educational Psychologist’s role as a consultant and adviser allows for an overview of intervention available from no other professional source. The Educational Psychologists works at all levels from direct observation of a pupil, to influencing the organization of the pupil’s learning environment. In other words, the Educational Psychologists stand the greatest chance of understanding the problems most clearly, finding out what works best for managing and monitoring these interventions and advising on decisions in this area.

With specific regard to the discussions of this study, the following recommendations are made in order to enhance the management of children with ADHD:

1.   Teachers and parents need orientation to have a clearer understanding of the assets and difficulties faced by pupils diagnosed with ADHD;

2.   A multi-faceted approach should be utilized for meaningful assessment;

3.   Intensive psychosocial treatment programmes should be used to help children with ADHD perform better socially;

4.   Behavioural parent training and classroom behaviour modification should be focussed upon by parents and teachers to manage the behaviour of children with ADHD;

5.   Novel and interesting tasks especially tasks that are easy or repetitive and those at a level they understand should be presented to pupils with ADHD.

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The Down Play of Drama and Theatre Instruction in the Primary Education

Ken-Aminkpo, Faith Ibarakumo

T he tendency in our society to look upon theatre art classes as a means of putting spare time to good use or extra-curricular subjects that are behind schedule. This is an issue that is sometimes frowned upon. Drama, dance, mime, poetry recitation and improvisational role-play classes should undoubtedly be taught by those that have majored in theatre arts; nevertheless, in our country this is usually done by the class teacher or sometimes unfortunately, replaces them with any other subject teacher when the theatre education teachers lag behind. However, Nigeria schools authorities down play the learning outcome of this subject area. Theatre arts education subsidizes not only to the development of the child’s social communication but also to his/her language skills, self-confidence and individual stand as a social being. Accordingly, the contents of this study will involve efforts to clarify the drama method and its contributions to the field.

The performing arts, broadly dance, music and theatre are key elements of culture and engage participants at all levels of education. This engagement through participation on both formal and informal education is often a lifelong experience. The end point for performing arts varies, for some people it is part of their engagement in their culture, such as that of indigenous peoples and folklore, for others it leads to professional careers up to an elite level. For this latter group, depending on the discipline, the physical demands are such that early entry into training can be essential. The obvious is that there is a lacuna in the primary and secondary school curriculum where theatre art is not taught but presented as extra-curriculum activity, commonly known as end of year activity. This is one of the problem facing theatre education teachers in Nigeria today. This paper emphasizes on drama and theatre as an instructional method that should be taught to prove its effectiveness and to provide drama, mime and dance education under the name performing arts education in the primary education otherwise called cradle or foundation stage of education, during which cognitive phase of the children starts to form. It examines the usefulness of the subject area and projects lesson plan suitable for the training of eaglet theatre artiste from the primary schools.

The basic element of drama and theatre teaching, according to Bloomfield reiterates that

‘‘depend on the children’s abilities to speak, act, improvise, compile and exhibit. Drama and theatre develops and combines children’s abilities to write, read and perceive. Critical understanding is expressed in drama by writing, discussing and using different sorts of medium. It also includes the child’s writing about his/her own experience as a participant or his/her stand as an audience, his/her practical performance and way of acting.(26).

This participation that takes place in both sides is like a repetition of the individual’s attitude to life. In other words, it is natural and supportive.

Theatre in education creativeness is a faculty that can show itself at any level and in any stage of a human’s life, a combination of processes that helps produce masterpieces of art, an attitude and a sort of behavior.

Theoretical Framework

Many authors describe the concept of drama, theatre and education from different viewpoints.

Umukoro (2002) says that ‘Drama is concern with action, with ‘doing’ and ‘seeing’; and teaching is nothing if not a process of action and communication’’ (7).

Jacobus (2001) defines the concept drama as thus:

Drama is the art of representing for the pleasure of others events that happened or that we imagine happening. The primary ingredients of drama are characters, represented players; action, described by gestures and movement, thought, implied by dialogue, words and action; spectacle, represented by scenery, music and costume… . (1)

Miles-Brown (2006) sees drama as ‘a means of understanding, gaining control over, challenging or coming to terms with the human condition. There is a thirst, a need for drama’ (9)

Drama in education is the teaching of social case adapted to educational goals, allowing the child to become aware of himself/herself and also his/her environment through experience. The ultimate goal of the teacher is to achieve a blend between self-awareness and social integration: between self-discovery and practical knowledge of life.

Blatner [2002) states that ‘drama education has been used to teach various subjects of literature, develop social work to help learn history and understand the complexity and details of education’ (5). By means of this method, education integrates subjects with life and supports learning the essence of life. As a result, the discussion here is not separation of drama from education but integration of subjects in a practical life pattern.

This discus is focused on how teaching process can be enhanced and accelerated by specialized form of drama and theatre known as creative dramatics and educational theatre. Creative dramatist is a method of instruction that have combined education all the cultural developments together.

Creative dramatist not only combines cultural developments but has also has been recently regarded as the first method to refer to in incomprehensible situations, where education contradicts itself.

Looking at from the above point of view, drama comes forth as a method which does not only develops educational and social types of work, but also helps educate and develop the participants. What’s more, it takes its place in education as a method that makes an abstract notion comprehensible and to interpret educational subjects as well.

Creative Drama Education Methods vary according to the studies of various researchers. Wagner (1999) For instance, one of the most important tools Heatcote used is the technique of ‘asking questions’. Some other techniques include team work are silent signals, symbols, and the usage of special knowledge and opinions. Using these stimulators, the common objective is to draw the attention of the class to enable concentration, to motivate and activate the group about a play that discovers the meaning of life (55). The combination of the processes in drama, used by Heatcote is to draw the group’s attention and based upon action with a view to activating the children.

Bloomfield’s (2000, p, 8) and McCaslin’s (2000, p, 55) views that action and body language in drama are a part of education.

And in this respect, drama differs from the other art branches, thus gaining a special characteristic. The drama method in education places importance on problem solving or living a certain moment rather than developing the plot or characters, thereby making it possible to rightly view the facts and see what is behind behavior (Wagner, 1999, ps, 1-9). The experience of living the moment will enrich the individual in the process. This is not only a matter of the imaginary fact easing the perception of the actual fact but also a special experience that will positively affect the participant and support character development.

Courtney (cited in Freeman (2000) claims that Creative imaginative power as a human trait is already dramatic in personality, and therefore the drama process is indispensable for humanity (5). Although these thoughts are acceptable for they put forward drama as a need, it seems that they are moving away from the essence. That’s because creative drama is in a sense a special method that harbors its own goal in itself as a natural result of its use of dramatic approaches.

Vallin (cited in Umukoro (2002) identified four basic expressive resources for meaningful exploitation in communication, listed as thus:

(a)   The use of the body in movement and dance and in the manipulation of environment, including machines.

(b)   The articulation of sound and through the use of voice in speech and song and through the use of instruments—both primitive sophisticated—in in the creation of rhythm and melody.

(c)   The use of visual symbols in painting, and the arrangement of objects into meaningful patterns as in sculpture, collages.

(d)   The use of written