Insects as Sustainable Food Ingredients: Production, Processing and Food Applications

Insects as Sustainable Food Ingredients: Production, Processing and Food Applications describes how insects can be mass produced and incorporated into our food supply at an industrial and cost-effective scale, providing valuable guidance on how to build the insect-based agriculture and the food and biomaterial industry. Editor Aaron Dossey, a pioneer in the processing of insects for human consumption, brings together a team of international experts who effectively summarize the current state-of-the-art, providing helpful recommendations on which readers can build companies, products, and research programs.

Researchers, entrepreneurs, farmers, policymakers, and anyone interested in insect mass production and the industrial use of insects will benefit from the content in this comprehensive reference. The book contains all the information a basic practitioner in the field needs, making this a useful resource for those writing a grant, a research or review article, a press article, or news clip, or for those deciding how to enter the world of insect based food ingredients.

• Details the current state and future direction of insects as a sustainable source of protein, food, feed, medicine, and other useful biomaterials
• Provides valuable guidance that is useful to anyone interested in utilizing insects as food ingredients
• Presents insects as an alternative protein/nutrient source that is ideal for food companies, nutritionists, entomologists, food entrepreneurs, and athletes, etc.
• Summarizes the current state-of-the-art, providing helpful recommendations on building companies, products, and research programs
• Ideal reference for researchers, entrepreneurs, farmers, policymakers, and anyone interested in insect mass production and the industrial use of insects
• Outlines the challenges and opportunities within this emerging industry

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Jun 23, 2016
• ISBN: 9780128028926

Book preview

Insects as Sustainable Food Ingredients

Production, Processing and Food Applications

Edited by

Aaron T. Dossey

All Things Bugs LLC

Griopro cricket powder

Athens, GA, United States

Juan A. Morales-Ramos

USDA-ARS National Biological Control Laboratory

Stoneville, MS, United States

M. Guadalupe Rojas

USDA-ARS National Biological Control Laboratory

Stoneville, MS, United States

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Disclaimer

List of Contributors

Acknowledgments

Chapter 1: Introduction to Edible Insects

Abstract

Introduction

Aims

Historic Relevance of Edible Insects

Reevaluation of Our Sources of Protein Worldwide

Population Growth and a Rising Demand for Animal-Derived Protein

Land Use

Urban and Vertical Agriculture

Climate Change and Agricultural Productivity

Aquaculture and the Environment

Limits to Nonrenewable Energy

Water Use

Insects as a Living Source of Protein in Space

Insects Are an Important and Feasible Solution

Worldwide Acceptance of Insects as Food

Funding and Legislation

Increasing Recognition in the Academic Sector

Current Trends in Using Insects as Food

Psychological Barriers and Disgust

Definition of Terms

Summary of Book

A Call to Action

Chapter 2: Insects as Food: History, Culture, and Modern Use around the World

Abstract

Introduction

Edible Insects of the World

History of Insects as Human Food

Modern Cultural Uses

Cultural Restrictions

Edible Insects as Nutraceuticals

Ethnoentomology

Harvesting and Cultivation

Final Comments and Recommendations

Chapter 3: Nutrient Content and Health Benefits of Insects

Nutrient Content

Insect Physiology and Functionality

Insects as a Food Ingredient

Insect Protein Functionality

Conclusions

Chapter 4: Edible Insects Farming: Efficiency and Impact on Family Livelihood, Food Security, and Environment Compared With Livestock and Crops

Abstract

Introduction

Food Security/Family Livelihood

Biodiversity and Availability of Insects

Consumption of Insects Versus Other Livestock

Cost of Cultivation

Possibility of Replacing Livestock with Insects as Human Food

Environmental Impact

Industrial Perspective

Commercial Insect Farming for Mass Production

Market Potential

Safety Regulations

Current Challenges and Conclusions

Chapter 5: Modern Insect-Based Food Industry: Current Status, Insect Processing Technology, and Recommendations Moving Forward

Abstract

Introduction

Current Insect Farming Industry

Recommendations and Considerations for Selection for Aspiring Insect-Based Food Producers and Insect Farmers

The Real Pioneers: Entrepreneurs in the Insect-Based Food Space

Supply Chain Needs: Feed, Farms, Insects, Transportation, Processing, and Manufacturing

Intriguing the Larger Food Industry: Uses of Insects as Industrial Food Ingredients

Conclusions

Chapter 6: Insect Mass Production Technologies

Abstract

Introduction

Mass-Produced Insect Species and Their Respective Applications

Potential of Using Conventional Feedstock for Rearing Insects

Nutritional Requirements for Farmed Insects

Considerations for Insect Mass Rearing Equipment and Mechanization

Production Techniques by Species

Environmental Control for Efficient Production of Insects in General

Concluding Remarks

Chapter 7: Food Safety and Regulatory Concerns

Abstract

Introduction

Regulatory Considerations for Insects-as-Food Ingredient

Labelling Regulation and Health Claims Applicable to Insects

Safety Considerations for Insects as Food

Toxicological Hazards of Insect-Based Foods and Food Ingredients

Farming and Novel Considerations Driving Insect Food/Feed Safety

Processing, Preparation, Packaging, and Transport of Insect-Based Foods and Food Ingredients

Conclusions on the Use of the Insects as Food and Feed

Chapter 8: Ensuring Food Safety in Insect Based Foods: Mitigating Microbiological and Other Foodborne Hazards

Abstract

Introduction

Microbes Associated with Insects

Insects as a Vector of Foodborne Disease Hazards

Administrative Regulation

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point System

Food Safety Modernization Act

Validation

Food Preservation

Conclusions

Chapter 9: Insects and Their Connection to Food Allergy

Abstract

Introduction

Food Allergy

Insects and Food Allergy

Insect Allergens

Effects of Processing

Methods of Allergen Detection

Conclusions

Chapter 10: Brief Summary of Insect Usage as an Industrial Animal Feed/Feed Ingredient

Abstract

Overview

Examples of Livestock Fed With Insects as Feed Ingredients

Benefits and Constraints Associated with Using Insects as Livestock Feed Ingredients

Promising Opportunities for Research and Technological Advancement

Conclusions

Appendix: Documented Information for 1555 Species of Insects and Spiders

Subject Index

Copyright

Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier

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Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright protection is not available in the United States for J.A. Morales-Ramos and M.G. Rojas’s contribution to the Work as they are US government employees.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-0-12-802856-8

For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/

Publisher: Nikki Levy

Acquisition Editor: Megan Ball

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Designer: Victoria Pearson

Typeset by Thomson Digital

Dedication

We would like to, in part, dedicate this book to the late Professor Gene R. DeFoliart (University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA) whose pioneering work and outreach activities for insects as a food source set the stage for the industry that is emerging today.

Disclaimer

As two of the editors of this book and some of the chapter authors are also employees of the US federal government, we are obligated to provide the following disclaimer:

The mention of any products or companies in this book does not constitute an endorsement by the US Department of Agriculture.

List of Contributors

F.G. Barroso,     Department of Biology and Geology, University of Almeria, Carretera de Sacramento, Almería, Spain

D. Chester,     USDA/NIFA, Washington, DC, United States

J.A. Cortes Ortiz,     Entomotech, S.L. PITA, Agroingroindustrial Technological Park of Almería, Almería, Spain

E.M. Costa-Neto,     Feira de Santana State University, Department of Biology, Bahia State, Brazil

C. de Haro,     Department of Biology and Geology, University of Almeria, Carretera de Sacramento, Almería, Spain

J.S. Dickson,     Department of Animal Science, 215F Meat Laboratory, Ames, IA, United States

A.T. Dossey,     All Things Bugs LLC, Griopro cricket powder, Athens, GA, United States

M. Downs,     Department of Food Science and Technology, Food Allergy Research and Resource Program, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Food Innovation Center, Lincoln, NE, United States

F. Dunkel,     Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, United States

F.V. Dunkel,     Montana State University, Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology, Bozeman, Montana, United States

R.T. Gahukar,     Arag Biotech Private Limited, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India

L. Giroud,     Insagri, S.L. Coin, Málaga, Spain

R. Han,     Guangdong Entomological Institute, Guangzhou, China

P. Johnson,     Department of Food Science and Technology, Food Allergy Research and Resource Program, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Food Innovation Center, Lincoln, NE, United States

R.L. Jullien,     Khepri, and FFPIDI, French Federation of Producers Importers and Distributors of insect, France

A. Kirabo,     Uganda Industrial Research Institute, Kampala, Uganda

P.A. Marone,     Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Toxicology and Pathology Associates, LLC, Richmond, VA, United States

D.L. Marshall,     Eurofins Microbiology Laboratories, Inc., Fort Collins, CO, United States

W.L. McGill,     Rocky Mountain Micro Ranch and PhD Candidate, National University of Ireland at Galway, Ireland

J.A. Morales-Ramos,     USDA-ARS National Biological Control Laboratory, Stoneville, MS, United States

N.H. Nguyen,     Department of Environmental Science, Policy & Management, University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States

C. Payne,     Nuffield Department of Population Health, University of Oxford, British Heart Foundation Centre on Population Approaches for Non-Communicable Disease Prevention, Oxford, United Kingdom

M. Peterson,     USDA/NIFA, Washington, DC, United States

M.G. Rojas,     USDA-ARS National Biological Control Laboratory, Stoneville, MS, United States

A.T. Ruiz,     Entomotech, S.L. PITA, Agroingroindustrial Technological Park of Almería, Almería, Spain

M.J. Sánchez-Muros,     Department of Biology and Geology, University of Almeria, Carretera de Sacramento, Almería, Spain

J.T. Tatum,     Ripple Technology LLC, Atlanta, GA, United States

M. Thomas,     Zetadec B.V., Wageningen, The Netherlands

J.K. Tomberlin,     Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States

J.P. Williams,     USDA/NIFA, Washington, DC, United States

J.R. Williams,     University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States

L. Yi,     Zetadec B.V., Wageningen, The Netherlands

M. Zeece,     Department of Food Science and Technology, Food Allergy Research and Resource Program, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Food Innovation Center, Lincoln, NE, United States

Acknowledgments

For their respective contributions and support in life, his career, and this book, Dr. Aaron T. Dossey would like to thank the following: God and his savior Jesus Christ; his family (grandpa Jerry C. Dossey, grandma Emma A. Dossey, mother Teresa M. Scott, aunt Sandra Dossey, and cousin Candace N. Kane) for their love, support, teaching, and inspiration; Laurie Keeler (University of Nebraska’s Food Processing Center, Lincoln, NE, USA) for believing in him and his research in insect-based foods early on and going beyond the call of duty providing support during various research projects; Thomas Dietrich (consultant, Dietrich’s Milk Products, Reading, PA, USA) for many supportive conversations helpful to this book and Dr. Dossey’s company and career; John Tyler Tatum (business partner, Ripple Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA) for going out of his way for help with Dr. Dossey’s business and last-minute help with figures in this book; Jack Armstrong (Armstrong Cricket Farm, West Monroe, LA, USA) and Steve Hederman (Millbrook Cricket Farm) for their helpful advice and information about cricket farming; Jeff Armstrong (Armstrong Cricket Farm, Glenville, GA, USA) for allowing Dr. Dossey to tour their farm and utilize photographs of cricket, mealworm, and superworm farming; Professor Frank Franklin (University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL, USA) for help getting started in the field of insects as a food source via assistance with Dr. Dossey’s Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation grant application in 2011; and Dave Gracer for inspiring conversations and initial introduction to the field of insects as food. Dr. Dossey also is greatly appreciative of the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation for their initial grant support of his work in this field, the USDA NIFA for their SBIR research grant support for his company and to USDA NIFA director Dr. Sonny Ramaswamy for his overall support of our field and emerging insect-based commodity industry. Additionally, Dr. Juan Morales-Ramos and Dr. Guadalupe Rojas would like to thank Dr. Edgar King for his input on the production of waxworms and for the review of Chapter 6 of this book.

Chapter 1

Introduction to Edible Insects

F.V. Dunkel*

C. Payne**

*    Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, United States

**    Nuffield Department of Population Health, University of Oxford, British Heart Foundation Centre on Population Approaches for Non-Communicable Disease Prevention, Oxford, United Kingdom

Abstract

This book is about optimism. This optimism is emerging from forward-thinking scientists and entrepreneurs who have a strong social conscience. Carefully and deliberately, the book will demonstrate to the reader the feasibility and value of insects as a sustainable commodity for food, feed, and other applications. It will weave a tapestry describing the richness of this source of protein, the numbers from nutritional tables, the numbers from mass rearing processes, and the safety and concerns of microbial associations in comparison to typical Western culture protein sources. As a prelude to the sustainability, large-scale farming, and production aspects of food insects, this book will walk the reader through the psychological aspects that separate many humans from this important and delicious protein source.

Keywords

edible insect

agriculture

source

barrier

water

environmententomophagy

food industry

Chapter Outline

Introduction

Aims

Historic Relevance of Edible Insects

Reevaluation of Our Sources of Protein Worldwide

Population Growth and a Rising Demand for Animal-Derived Protein

Land Use

Urban and Vertical Agriculture

Climate Change and Agricultural Productivity

Aquaculture and the Environment

Limits to Nonrenewable Energy

Water Use

Insects as a Living Source of Protein in Space

Insects Are an Important and Feasible Solution

Worldwide Acceptance of Insects as Food

Funding and Legislation

Increasing Recognition in the Academic Sector

Current Trends in Using Insects as Food

Psychological Barriers and Disgust

Definition of Terms

Summary of Book

A Call to Action

References

Introduction

This book is about optimism. This optimism is emerging from forward-thinking scientists and entrepreneurs who have a strong social conscience. Carefully and deliberately, the book will demonstrate to the reader the feasibility and value of insects as a sustainable commodity for food, feed, and other applications. It will weave a tapestry describing the richness of this source of protein, the numbers from nutritional tables, the numbers from mass rearing processes, and the safety and concerns of microbial associations in comparison to typical Western culture protein sources. As a prelude to the sustainability, large-scale farming, and production aspects of food insects, this book will walk the reader through the psychological aspects that separate many humans from this important and delicious protein source.

The time is ripe for a complete, detailed treatment of edible insects. Academia, policy makers, leaders in food security, food safety officers, animal scientists, and the business community need to have a single, foundational, go-to book for their professional teaching and learning. This book presents the basics of edible insects.

The background to this topic has its roots in a small group of researchers worldwide who have been advocating the tremendous potential of edible insects for the past few decades. It was in 1978 that Professor Gene DeFoliart, a forward-looking, environmentally concerned medical entomology professor, began to investigate the feed potential of edible insects for chickens. Seeing the potential being far wider than chickens and beetles, he launched The Food Insects Newsletter in 1988 (DeFoliart et al., 2009). In 1995, DeFoliart appointed Professor Florence Dunkel, a natural product entomologist, the new editor of the Newsletter, and DeFoliart went on to publish an online book on the subject. Dunkel and a handful of other Western culture entomology professors meanwhile had begun to serve insects at local and national insect fairs, events, and even a dinner party filmed on the Discovery Channel in 1996. Both the research and the outreach was considered a fringy activity. For 20 years, during the dark ages of insects for food and feed, this publication was physically sent 3 times a year to a readership of 1000 in 87 countries. As such, The Food Insects Newsletter kept researchers in the academic world connected and the public informed. Meanwhile, similarly forward-thinking entrepreneurs worldwide began to produce and market insect-based food products and develop insect farming techniques that would prove even more resource-efficient than initial research had suggested.

The movement toward using insects as a food ingredient then accelerated considerably with the publication of the Forestry Paper 171 of the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (Van Huis et al., 2013), which served as the catalyst for many additional companies entering this industry, for new researchers entering this field, and for academics putting edible insects on their curriculum change agenda. It was the most downloaded FAO document to date, currently numbering 6 million downloads, with 1 million in the first 24 h after release on May 13, 2013. There is no doubt that edible insects have taken their place at the table of serious solutions to food security for the future. Given this evidence from the response to the FAO publication, this textbook serves as the next level of basic information for the world of food, nutrition, health, and environmental sustainability.

Thus, we can say that the industrial sector has entered a new phase, supported by a surge in academic research. It is time now to build on the knowledge of scientists, local environmentalists, Indigenous peoples’ traditional ecological knowledge, and the general public to help design plans for land use going forward that recognize the efficiency of insect protein production on a very small footprint. Insects need to be part of the collective envisioning of a new way to live sustainably.

Aims

In this introductory chapter, we aim to contextualize edible insects within a contemporary setting. We briefly describe the historic relevance of insects used as food for humans. Then, we turn to the potential of insects at the present time, reviewing the place of edible insects within our contemporary global food system. The current epoch has been termed the Anthropocene—an era in which we must recognize the irreversible impacts that our existence has on the environment in which we live, and the imperative need for us to acknowledge this and take responsibility (Purdy, 2015). We describe some of the major challenges that our planet currently faces, and the part that the food system has played in contributing to these challenges. For each challenge we show that a food system that incorporates edible insects and insects as ingredients may have the potential to contribute to the solutions. We conclude the chapter with a description of the book, and a brief synopsis of what each chapter can teach us about this underutilized, but exciting and diverse, family of food ingredients.

Historic Relevance of Edible Insects

Insects have been eaten throughout the history of humanity, and are one of the many food sources that humans have relied upon in our journey toward developing our unique technological capability and complex social systems. Insects, despite their absence in a conventional Western diet, remain popular today on a global scale.

Perhaps the greatest irony of the cultural avoidance of edible insects as human food lies in the fact that insects may well have played a major role in our collective past, shaping what it means to be human. Every primate is, to some degree, insectivorous (McGrew, 2014). Insects are a crucial source of fat, protein, and micronutrients in diets that are otherwise heavily plant-based (Rothman et al., 2014). The desire to obtain edible insects in larger quantities appears to have been a key driver of the discovery of tool use. Our closest living primate relatives, the chimpanzees, are famous for their ability to use tools, and many of these tools are used to forage efficiently for edible insects (Sanz et al., 2010; Koops et al., 2015; Whiten et al., 2005). There is even evidence from early human sites that some of the first bone tools were developed for termite extraction (Lesnik, 2011). Therefore, developing innovative technology to increase our access to edible insects will be a logical extension of our past and critical aspect of our future success.

Edible insects, however, are not merely a relic of our prehistoric past. Humans have continued to forage for, to semicultivate and even to fully domesticate insects for food throughout history. Insects are currently estimated to play a role in the diet of at least two billion people worldwide, the majority of whom are in the global south (FAO, 2013).

Reevaluation of Our Sources of Protein Worldwide

While the ability of the earth overall to withstand human impact is incontrovertible, the ability of many species, including humans, to withstand our own actions is questionable. The environment that we have come to rely upon is composed of interconnected biomes with animals and plants that facilitate high intensity food production. Yet we allow cultural prejudices to dictate which of these are prioritized, thus ignoring the connections between them and jeopardizing the system as a whole.

Interconnectedness forms the basis of many philosophical systems worldwide, and the interconnectedness of all living and nonliving matter on Earth and its atmospheric layers is seeing increasing recognition in Western cultural thought. Throughout the past century, cultural prejudice and resulting economic pressures have taken precedence over these concepts, and this is reflected in the organization of our global food system (Berry, 2000; Norberg-Hodge, 2000).

Prior to industrialization, the productivity of agricultural systems depended on the strengths of the connections within them, exploiting the benefits that accrue from mutualistic relationships between species. Rice-fish farming systems in Asia facilitate nitrogen fixation in soils, diminishing the need for additional fertilizer (Lu and Li, 2006) and optimizing water use (Frei and Becker, 2005). Rice-duck farming systems in China eliminate the need for pesticide use (Zhang et al., 2009). Agroforestry systems—in which trees and crops are cultivated alongside one another—are used worldwide to maintain biodiversity while also providing important additional sources of income (McNeely and Schroth, 2006). The chitemene agricultural systems of Tanzania are based around the distribution of Macrotermes mounds, which improve soil fertility and also provide valuable by-products in the form of food, fertilizer, and building materials (Mielke and Mielke, 1982). Finally, across the world, insects that feed on crops are also collected as food, exemplifying the multiple benefits of interconnected systems (Yen, 2009).

Commoditization of several staple crops during the 20th century meant that it became economically preferable for many farmers to reject traditional, interconnected agriculture in favor of monoculture. Monoculture requires prioritizing the yield of a single species, and as a result, foodstuffs that were once by-products or perhaps even coproducts, are increasingly treated as hindrances to one-crop production.

The click beetles (Elateridae) of Montana are one such example of this. They feed on wheat crops, grow extremely well in subterranean environments, their larvae have up to 14 instars, and they reach lengths of up to 25 mm (Morales-Rodriguez et al., 2014). Their ecological success is considered a blight by researchers, who work to develop new pesticides that will eliminate them. Yet why is the question not raised: which is the higher quality protein? Which is the crop that is more efficient, water-wise, land-wise, energy-wise in production of that protein? Is it the wheat or the insect? The answer, of course, is the insect. Although data specific to this insect are not available, another coleopteran species, Tenebrio molitor (mealworms) is known to contain 20.9 g of crude protein per 100 g (n = 10) (Payne et al., 2015), while in contrast, 100 g of wheat grain contains just 13.53 g (n = 3) (Xiang et al., 2008). This insect also has a favorable amino acid composition compared to wheat, meaning that 100 g of the insect contains up to twice the quantity of essential amino acids such as lysine and leucine, which cannot be synthesized by the human body, compared to 100 g of wheat grain. Why, then, do we invest our energy, land, even pristine land, and water in growing a lower quality protein that uses more inputs than the insect? The answer in this case appears to be by and large: We eat wheat here, and we have grown it in Montana for many generations. What, then, is the answer for farmers in less wealthy parts of the world, who used intercropping systems within living memory yet now cultivate imported staple crops for a fluctuating market?

There is increasing evidence that such answers to these questions are not sustainable. The following sections discuss the evidence that our current agricultural systems are inadequate, particularly in light of the changing dynamics of demography and demand, and show that the consideration of agriculture that harnesses insect biology may be one of our best options for a brighter future.

Population Growth and a Rising Demand for Animal-Derived Protein

By 2050, the global population is predicted to grow to nine billion people, and the demand for animal-derived protein is expected to increase at an even higher rate (Godfray et al., 2010). While this forecast is not without controversy (Tomlinson, 2013), it highlights issues of capacity, demand and resource depletion that cannot be ignored.

Increasing population and consumption are placing unprecedented demands on agriculture and natural resources. In the past 40 years, technological advances and land clearance have enabled food production to rise in tandem with population increase (FAOSTAT, 2015). Yet even if current trends in yield increase continue in the coming decades, this will not be sufficient to meet the demands of a population that is growing in wealth at the same time it is growing in numbers (Ray et al., 2013). We can also expect a continued rise in the demand for high-quality, animal-derived protein, with most people demanding higher quality protein sources than their parents and grandparents had available on a routine basis. This will require a projected 72% rise in meat production over the next 35 years (Wu et al., 2014). Yet food from animal origins is increasingly expensive, both in economic and in environmental terms. Livestock systems—that is, including the production of feed for livestock—currently occupy a staggering 45% of the world’s surface area (Thornton et al., 2011) and contribute 18% of global greenhouse gas emissions (GHGEs) (Steinfeld et al., 2006). Feed production represents 45% of these emissions (Gerber et al., 2013), and principal protein sources for animal feed are fishmeal and soybean meal, both fraught with multiple environmental challenges: soy production is a major driver of rainforest clearance in the Amazonian basin (Salazar et al., 2015), and fishmeal production is depleting marine stocks, with the result that fishmeal prices in real terms are expected to rise by 90% in the period 2010–30 (FAO, 2013).

Overall, to meet the world’s future food security and sustainability needs, it is clear that food production must grow substantially while, at the same time, agriculture’s environmental footprint must shrink dramatically. Thus, significant progress could be made by halting agricultural expansion for livestock production, closing yield gaps on underperforming lands, and increasing cropping efficiency. This will require shifting diets and reducing waste (Gustavsson et al., 2011; Lundqvist et al., 2008; Parfitt et al., 2010). By forming an alliance with insects instead of an adversary relationship, the dilemma of increasing population and consumption can be solved. Together, these strategies could double food production. Meanwhile, farmed insects can be used to process preconsumer food waste on the road to creating a more nutritious feed for cattle, chickens, fish, pigs, and other vertebrate livestock. This will greatly reduce the environmental impacts of agriculture. In India, Premalatha et al. (2011) summed up well the supreme irony of populations and the growing demand for complete proteins, All over the world, money worth billions of rupees is spent every year to save crops that contain no more than 14% plant protein by killing another food source (insects) that may contain up to 75% high-quality animal protein.

Individuals and groups of people all over the world, including new parents, are seeking a healthier and more sustainable world. They are increasingly interested in the best sources of essential amino acids, favorable ratios of essential fatty acids (high omega-3 fatty acids in comparison to omega-6 fatty acids), and other specific nutrients that lead to strong minds and bodies. At the same time, many people increasingly demand that the sources of these nutrients are natural, pesticide free, and produced in locally environmentally friendly ways.

Land Use

Agricultural production is responsible for ongoing land clearance, with devastating implications for the environment including contributing to climate change (Kurukulasuriya and Rosenthal, 2003) and mass species extinction (Dirzo et al., 2014), both of which are in turn likely to prove detrimental to long term agricultural productivity. Some say this deliberate environmental degradation is an immoral process (Pope Francis, 2015). It is imperative that we find new ways to use land efficiently for food production (Godfray and Garnett, 2014). Edible insects provide one such opportunity.

Food production takes up almost half of the planet’s land surface and threatens to consume the fertile land that still remains. In 2005, 40% of the Earth’s land was under cultivation for agriculture (Owen, 2005). The global impact of farming on the environment that this use of land represents should be a serious concern for all humans. Navin Ramankutty, a land-use researcher with University of Wisconsin-Madison’s Center for Sustainability and the Global Environment (SAGE) and his coworkers compiled maps using satellite images and crop and livestock production data from countries around the world. This satellite data indicates where cultivation is occurring with good spatial accuracy, while the census data indicates what is being grown there. Roughly an area the size of South America is used for crop production, while even more land—7.9–8.9 billion acres (3.2–3.6 billion hectares)—is being used to raise livestock. With the world’s population growing so rapidly, the pressure is on farmers to find new land to cultivate. Production of food on land cannot be separated from negative environmental consequences such as deforestation, water pollution, and soil erosion (Ramankutty et al., 2008).

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, total farmland increased by 12.4 million acres (5 million hectares) annually between 1992 and 2002. A major part of this expansion has been from soybeans, and soybean production has been fueled by demand for soy from China. To meet this demand, in Brazil, for example, huge areas of rainforest have been replaced by soybean plantations. Soy is not a traditional crop in South America. University of Maryland researchers found that 72% of land cleared for crops in that region between 2001 and 2003 was previously pasture for livestock (Morton et al., 2006). It is likely that these pastures were formerly rainforest. So the transition may have been from forest to pasture to soybeans (Ramankutty et al., 2002,  2008).

Amato Evan, a Center for Sustainability and the Global Environment (SAGE) researcher, has warned us, If current trends continue, we should expect to see increased agricultural production at the cost of increased tropical deforestation (Owen, 2005). Crops used as feed for cattle are driving tropical cropland expansion (DeFries et al., 2010,  2004). In 2015, a decade later, the need to stop further land claimed for agriculture is even more urgent.

Forests, particularly tropical rainforests, are a reservoir of biodiversity of plants, animals (including insects), and many other types of unique life forms. Within this diversity are important food insects, plants of commercial value, and a storehouse of pharmaceuticals we may need in the future (DeFries and Rosenzweig, 2010). Even beyond what critical utility biodiversity may hold for human kind, the current mass extinction of these species and their habitats is simply immoral. Indeed, even the Pope of the Holy See recently published an encyclical warning of the dangers and moral imperative of protecting the earth and its natural environment (Pope Francis, 2015).

Countries with the least suitable agricultural land are likely to be the ones hardest hit by increased food demand. However, these are also countries where edible insects form part of their recent history. At-risk regions were identified by superimposing remaining potential arable land with locations with high projected population growth. Based on this analysis, 16 regions were identified to be trouble spots over the next 45 years (Owen, 2005). The regions include several parts of Asia, North Africa, and the Middle East. Remaining unexploited areas are not the best suited for agriculture, but are presently supporting valuable natural ecosystems. Certainly, new food production technologies, such as GPS-based precision farming, can improve productivity while reducing the use of water and the application of fertilizer and other potentially harmful chemicals while using the land more effectively. Since farming of insects indoors (and potentially vertically in multistory facilities) would not be tied to arable land or to land suited for agriculture, the utility of food products from insects seem able to solve the main land use issues without high technology based on managing fertilizers, potentially harmful herbicides and insecticides, and water use.

The time has come to look at which crops, plants, livestock, and minilivestock have the best natural efficiency of protein production in tandem with high nutritional quality and low environmental impact. It is time to take an integrated, honest look at land use.

Producers in the industrialized world are concerned with producing more food on less land. This is imperative because, across the world, land clearance for farming is having a major impact on species extinction rates (Dirzo et al., 2014), and land sparing—that is, increasing yields in order to minimize demand for farmland—is recommended as the best strategy to address this (Green et al., 2005).

The feed conversion efficiency for many species of insects is well above that of beef (Van Huis et al., 2013). Recent research shows that some species are also more efficient than soy production: Insect rearing trials conducted by the EU initiative PROteINSECT, using the housefly (Musca domestica) and black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens), found that 1 hectare of land could produce at least 150 tons of insect protein per year in comparison to less than a ton of soybeans for the same area (Zanolli, 2014). This is just one example of the land-sparing, indoor, intensive insect protein production that is described in this book, in the hope that it will inspire farmers, researchers, and investors alike to give serious consideration to the potential of insects as a food ingredient in order to alleviate pressure on land for agriculture. This rich source of information could provide a way forward to avert more forests and prairies from being claimed for agricultural land, even in the face of growing population numbers.

Urban and Vertical Agriculture

A recent surge in urban agriculture, in both the developed and developing world, is a trend that is forecast to continue due to a growing interest in household-level food sovereignty, environmental advantages in terms of transport and energy costs, and continued urbanization. Conventional livestock are not suited to such conditions. Insects, however, thrive in indoor environments and are ideal candidates for urban agriculture, even at a household level.

Urban agriculture has been proposed as a key strategy for policymakers looking to improve global food security (Bakker et al., 2000). Indoor farming within cities; vertical farming; and farming that makes use of underutilized spaces within urban environments such as idle land, rooftops, and unused water bodies is seeing increasing interest (Smit and Nasr, 1992). Growing crops and livestock in multistory facilities is the coup-de-gras of land use efficiency, and insects are uniquely capable of being mass produced in multistory buildings. Indoor vertical farming can be conducted on multiple levels under one roof, and although energy and water costs are currently high, once these systems are optimized this may be offset by the drop in food transportation costs from rural to urban areas. Furthermore, although still in its infancy, involvement in urban agriculture correlates with dietary adequacy in developing countries (Zezza and Tasciotti, 2010). Urban agriculture in many places is primarily practiced by women and research suggests this can contribute to redressing gender-based inequalities (Hovorka et al., 2009), and is likely to form part of a globally relevant strategy for a more sustainable and food-secure future.

Meanwhile, urban agriculture in the form of backyard food production for the individual household is also becoming popular among wealthier consumers. Yet in this context, because backyards now are not attainable or desired by many, container food production is on the rise. Container gardens change the food system in two basic ways. First, containers do not need land beyond one’s living quarters. The corner of a room, patio, a table top, a roof, the side of a fence, or house wall will suffice, making this mode of food production accessible even to those living in the most densely populated areas of the world. Second, this means that consumers who can afford to do so are rediscovering the joys of producing their own food, the flavor bursts from eating their own fresh-picked food, and spiritual wholeness of farm-to-table eating within their own home.

This trend is relevant to the promotion of insects as an alternative protein source for humans. Insects are the only livestock that it is possible to cultivate not only in your own backyard, but even in your home kitchen (McGrath, 2015). Already, grow-your-own indoor farming kits are available for mealworm and black soldier fly production. Marketed as a healthy and very local sustainable protein source, these enclosed systems could be the future of home cultivation, particularly in the context of a rapidly increasing urban population.

Similarly, insect-rearing facilities may also play a key role in the future of commercial scale urban agriculture. Farmed insects such as crickets, mealworms, and black soldier fly larvae thrive in closed, controlled environments typical of indoor agriculture. Unlike avian and mammalian livestock, the welfare and productivity of farmed insects do not seem to be compromised by crowded conditions and a lack of sunlight. In theory, then, they can be grown anywhere on earth. Consequently, an urban setting is ideal for minimizing overall environmental impact because it ensures that the food is produced as close as possible to the consumers themselves. Indeed, it may be the case that insects are the only livestock that really work in an urban setting.

Overall, then, while a grand diversity of food plants are appropriate to container gardens and modular food production systems in cities, insects are the only animal livestock that are amenable to this environment. However, while fruits and vegetables generally pose no real challenge for the householder harvesting from their containers, this may not be the case for insects. We foresee a time in the near future when householders will be growing insects on their countertop.

Climate Change and Agricultural Productivity

Climate change is exacerbated by excessive land clearance, and by the greenhouse gas emissions generated by food production. Changes in the earth’s temperature and in sea levels are in turn expected to have a severe impact on global agricultural production (Kurukulasuriya and Rosenthal, 2003), particularly in some of the world’s poorest areas (Winsemius et al., 2015). Insects are a nutrient source that is robust in the face of climatic variation, and that have a low global warming impact when farmed.

The need to change our food system to combat climate change is now unequivocal, particularly since climate change itself is predicted to have devastating effects on global agriculture (Nelson et al., 2014). Even seemingly slight temperature changes cause changes in weather patterns, contributing to the melting of the polar ice caps, loss of glaciers, and a resultant rise in sea level that threatens to engulf large areas of inhabited land. Meanwhile, producers in both coastal and inland regions are already experiencing the effects of changing climates. One such example can be found in the Great Plains of the USA, a region that has already experienced an extension of the growing season from 90 to 120 days in the past 20 years. These longer growing periods, however, mean that the temperatures of the earth and of ambient air will rise, meaning more evaporation of water following melting of the glaciers, frozen water that remains stored in the mountains over 1 year. So, this region has been experiencing not only less water but also a longer growing season. The Rocky Mountain regions (as well as the Midwestern United States) had a drought during 2002, which was accompanied by dry conditions, wildfires, and hot temperatures in the western and midwestern areas (NOAA, 2003). The US drought of 2002 turned a normal fire season into a very dangerous, treacherous, and violent season. Adjacent Canadian provinces were also affected. The 2001–02 rain season in Southern California was the driest since records began in 1877. Records were broken in an even worse drought just 5 years later, during the 2006–07 rain season in Los Angeles. The California drought continued through 2010 and did not end until Mar. 2011. The drought shifted east during the summer of 2011 to affect a large portion of the southwestern United States and Texas (NOAA, 2015).

As a result, farmers will have to rethink their strategy regarding the type of crops to grow. Irrigated crops, such as alfalfa, corn, sugar beets, some wheat, and some barley will become increasingly costly in terms of water use. On the other hand, native grasses and other vegetation for browsing wild animals will thrive. How can we access the nutrients we need without using irrigated crops and using minimal water? Is it more efficient to eat wheat, or to eat the animals, such as grasshoppers and Mormon crickets that eat the wheat? Alternatively, is it more efficient to farm the insects directly, particularly given their low water usage (Oonincx and DeBoer, 2012; Van Huis et al., 2013)?

The most significant component of agriculture that contributes to climate change is livestock. Globally, beef cattle and milk cattle have the most significant impact in terms of greenhouse gas emissions (GHGEs), and are responsible for 41% of the world’s CO2 emissions and 20% of the total global GHGEs (Gerber et al., 2013). The atmospheric increases in GHGEs caused by the transport, land clearance, methane emissions, and grain cultivation associated with the livestock industry are the main drivers behind increases in global temperatures.

In contrast to conventional livestock, insects as minilivestock are low-GHGE emitters (Oonincx et al., 2010), use minimal land, can be fed on food waste rather than cultivated grain, and can be farmed anywhere thus potentially also avoiding GHGEs caused by long distance transportation. If there was a dietary shift toward increased insect consumption and decreased meat consumption worldwide, the global warming potential of the food system would be significantly reduced.

Aquaculture and the Environment

Environmental degradation is not limited to land; a growing demand for fish is causing the rapid depletion of marine fisheries, seriously threatening marine environments and biodiversity. The main cause for this is the use of wild fish stocks for fishmeal—a feed ingredient that could be replaced by insects.

In 2007 the US National Academy of Sciences published a report summarizing the change in fish production globally (Brander, 2007). The report concluded that current global fisheries production of ≈160 million tons was rising as a result of increases in aquaculture production. Aquaculture, however, depends on of the production of fishmeal—the feed used for farmed fish. Fishmeal is composed of wild fish. These are sourced from wild, ocean fisheries and are small, bony, pelagic fish such as anchoveta, sardines, pilchard, blue whiting, sandeel, sprat, and capelin. These fish constitute roughly one-third of the global annual fisheries catch, and are processed to produce fishmeal and fish oil used in fish, poultry, and livestock feeds (Jacobson et al., 2001). So, as aquaculture, poultry, and livestock rise in production, ocean fisheries are depleted.

Brander (2007) identified a number of climate-related threats to both capture fisheries and aquaculture, but placed low confidence in his predictions of future fisheries production because of uncertainty over future global aquatic net primary production and the transfer of this production through the food chain to human consumption. Commercial fishing exacerbates the effects of climate because fishing reduces the age, size, and geographic diversity of populations and the biodiversity of marine ecosystems, making both more sensitive to additional stresses such as climate change. Inland fisheries are threatened by changes in precipitation and water management. The frequency and intensity of extreme climate events is likely to have a major impact on future fisheries production in both inland and marine systems. Brander concluded that reducing fishing mortality in the majority of fisheries, which are currently fully exploited or overexploited, is the principal feasible means of reducing the impacts of climate change. For this to be a viable solution, it will be necessary to seek alternative sources of feed for fish and livestock, and for animal-based protein to feed a growing human population.

Many commercially farmed fish are natural predators of insects, and therefore fishmeal can be replaced by insect meal in fish feed. This replacement would have little adverse effects on fish growth, but by alleviating pressure on marine fish stocks, would have significant benefits for the future of marine biodiversity.

Limits to Nonrenewable Energy

Current global energy production relies on nonrenewable energy sources. The global food system, and livestock production in particular, contributes disproportionately to energy use. Insects are a low-energy-intensive source of protein that could contribute to the sustainability of world food production.

Fossil fuels and fuels like uranium are spent once they are used to obtain energy. These are called nonrenewable sources of energy. Although new plants can be planted that eventually turn into coal, the process takes millions of years and that is why coal and other fossil fuels are considered nonrenewable. Fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) result from a transformation of plant and animal material over millions of years. The solar energy originally stored in the plant or animal is eventually converted into energy stored in carbon and hydrogen bonds of the fossil fuel. The fuels that took millions of years to make are being used at an enormously rapid rate.

What does insect farming and industrial processing have to do with limiting nonrenewable energy? To begin with, using the diverse 2000 or more species of edible insects in the locations where they are naturally found will reduce nonrenewable energy currently used for transportation of high-quality protein. The greatest food needs at this time, and predicted greatest growth needs are in the same areas where food insects are already appreciated.

Energy use in each human activity has grown exponentially since the early days of human civilization. For example, technological capabilities enable us to travel more and process more food. Fig. 1.1--> shows the amount of energy (in calories) we spend for each calorie of food we obtain. It shows that technologies have mechanized and made large production systems of cultivation and fishing. These systems involve large expenditures of energy (Fig. 1.1). Wet rice production in Asian countries takes just 0.02–0.1 calories of human generated energy to produce 1 calorie worth of rice as food (not including natural energy utilized by rice plants for photosynthesis). In contrast, large-scale production of animal-derived food consumes enormous amounts of energy. For example, it takes over 2 calories of energy input to produce 1 calorie worth of eggs in large-scale farms, and it takes 10–15 calories of input for every calorie worth of beef produced in the United States. The intensity of energy consumption for US food production has grown almost 10-fold in the 20th century, and yet these are the very systems that we will need to expand to meet the demands of our growing population. This demand is exacerbated by the fact that with industrialization, average daily calorie intakes also rise, resulting in an enormous increase in calorie consumption throughout human history (Table 1.1).

Figure 1.1   Summary of the energy required for various types of food production. (Clark, M.E., 1989. Ariadnes Thread. St. Martin’s Press, New York, NY)

Table 1.1

Per Capita and Global Energy Consumption for Different Types of Human Economies

Source: Clark, M.E., 1989. Ariadne’s Thread. St. Martin’s Press, New York, NY, p. 102.

a Leakey, R., Lewin, R., 1977. Origins. E.P. Dutton, New York, NY, p. 143; Weeks, J., 1981. Population: An Introduction to Concepts and Issues, second ed. Wadsworth, Belmont, CA, p. 46.

b Brown, H., 1978. The Human Future Revisited. W.W. Norton, New York, NY, pp. 30–33, with per capita figures for industrialized nations upgraded from 1970 to 1980 levels.

Liquid fuels such as gasoline and diesel have made our lives and our food supply more mobile. Intercontinental travel has become increasingly commonplace, and we now enjoy a global trade in agricultural produce that enables us to eat food from around the world. Yet the crude oil driving our mobility is a nonrenewable energy source, and therefore if we wish to maintain this lifestyle, it is imperative that we develop new technologies before our current travel habits deplete the remaining crude oil stores on Earth. The global production and movement of food plays a key role in this dilemma. Energy use for transportation is the least efficient use of fossil fuels (DOE/EIA, 2001). Use of crude oil is escalating as developing countries emulate industrialized mobility (Fig. 1.2-->). This increase in oil consumption specifically for transportation not only impacts the environment, it depletes the limited oil reserves.

Figure 1.2   Use of crude oil for transportation needs. (DOE/EIA, 2001)

Most of the energy planning is done by looking at the supply side, rather than by asking how the demand side (all our uses of energy) can be managed. Energy availability and use are good indicators of the standard of living in our technological world. In the United States, the average annual consumption per capita is 55 barrels of oil. In economically poorer countries, consumption is 6 barrels per year. Fig. 1.3--> shows the projections of world energy supplies from 1970 to 2020.

Figure 1.3   World energy consumption by fuel type, 1970–2020. [History: Energy Information Administration (EIA), Office of Energy Markets and End Use, International Statistics Database and International Energy Annual 1997, DOE/EIA-0219 (97) (Washington, DC, April 1999). Projections: EIA, World Energy Projection System, 2000].

Finally, nonrenewable fuels are currently essential for production of grains and oilseeds. The demand for meat is rising steeply. As the demand for meat rises, demand for grain and protein feeds grows proportionately more quickly (Trostle, 2008). At this point, with no decrease in meat demand in sight, we need to pay careful attention to feed-to-product conversion ratios (Table 1.2).

Table 1.2

Comparison of Feed Needed to Produce a Pound of Meat From Microlivestock (Such as Insects) or Macrolivestock (Such as Beef)

Source: Trostle (2008).

The purpose of this discussion of nonrenewable energy has been to set the stage for a rethinking of food production. Box 1.1 illustrates how putting insects into the equation of nonrenewable energy use changes the bottom line of use in a positive way. In 1999 the price for food commodities and the prices for oil had been stable for a decade, but during that year, this began to change. In the next 10 years, food commodity prices rose 98% and the price of crude oil rose over fivefold (547%) (Trostle, 2008). It seems logical that it is time to search for a food and/or feed supply that is similarly or more nutritious than the one we currently utilize but that is overall more efficient and requires much less energy for production or transportation. If by-products from that food and/or feed supply could also be used to produce fuel, this would of course be an added bonus.

Box 1.1

   Hawaii

Hawaii’s geographic isolation makes its energy infrastructure unique among the US states. Recently, more than one-tenth of the state’s gross domestic product has been spent on energy, most of that for imported crude oil and petroleum products (US Energy Information Administration, 2013a,b). More than four-fifths of Hawaii’s energy comes from petroleum, making it the most petroleum-dependent state in the nation (Glick, 2015). Hawaii’s largest industry is tourism. Hawaii’s second major sector is agriculture. Transportation accounts for about half of all energy consumed (US Energy Information Administration, 2015). One large user of agricultural oceanic transportation is for animal feed, particularly for early weaned pigs. When one puts feed insects, such as black soldier flies, into the equation (Newton et al., 2005), this energy cost for transportation in, for example, Hawaii, can be greatly reduced. This can be and should be replicated worldwide.

Insects, as it happens, do indeed have the potential to address both issues. First, because food insects can thrive on side-streams or preconsumer food waste, such as ugly fruits and vegetables, and produce high quality protein without the use of crude oil, the use of insects as food and/or feed would increase overall food production while reducing nonrenewable energy use. Second, oil extracted from edible insects is one potential by-product of insectmeal production for feed, and research suggests that this can be used as an energy source in the form of biodiesel (Manzano-Agugliaro et al., 2012).

Water Use

In addition to the environmental impacts of livestock in terms of land use, greenhouse gas emissions, and use of nonrenewable energy, the water footprint of mammalian and avian food production is extortionate. Depletion of water resources worldwide calls for a concerted effort to develop future food products that are less water-dependent, and insects are an ideal candidate.

To put 1 kg of corn-fed beef steak or hamburger on the table requires 22,000 L water. Much of this is due to the water footprint of feed crops, which have had devastating effects on natural river systems worldwide. For example, the alfalfa and sugar beets grown on the Great Plains of the United States have resulted in the dewatering of the Colorado River, parts of the Wind River, and other rivers in the west. Equally serious is the diminishing of the Ogalalla Aquifer due to intensive water use for agriculture (Siebert and Döll, 2010). It is time to think creatively. Box 1.2 gives an example of this.

Box 1.2

   Eurasian Milfoil as Insect Feed

In the Great Lakes area of the United States, water scarcity is not as much a daily concern. The pollutants and eutrophying compounds entering water systems in the Midwestern United States are a daily concern. Some of these eutrophying compounds encourage growth of invasive weeds, such as Eurasian milfoil, Myriophyllum spicatum (Creed, 1998) and now its even more invasive hybrid form, along with native milfoil, are a concern (LaRue et al., 2013). This is an opportunity for weed scientists, plant pathologists, entomologists, botanists, animal scientists, and sportspeople to think out of the box and look at the opportunity this might provide for growing more nutritious food without nonrenewable energy use or use of water. Consider feed insects. Midwestern ponds and lakes are doing a great job of producing biomass. Along with investing in more research to develop new herbicides or even insect or fungal biocontrol (Shearer, 2013) for the milfoil, are there ways to just use the milfoil? Instead of using increasingly more and more water and fertilizer on cropland to produce alfalfa and corn for livestock feedlots, what are the possibilities of using the milfoil as a substrate to raise high-quality feed for livestock produced from black soldier fly larvae fed on milfoil? Although we do not yet know the omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acid ratio of this aquatic grass, the fact that it is used as fish food (Catarino et al., 1997) and preferred by insects indicates that it is likely to have nutritional content favorable for growth of black soldier fly larvae, making the larvae nutritious feed for livestock, and so forth to be appreciated by humans.

We are at a crossroads (Gleick et al., 2009; Postel et al., 1996; Gordon et al., 2005). The problems are wicked (not easily solved) and food security is the mother of all wicked problems (Ramaswamy, 2015). This calls for extraordinary action and creative solutions.

Insects as a Living Source of Protein in Space

One strength of insects as minilivestock that has already been discussed is that they can be farmed in almost any setting. With this in mind, ongoing research is investigating the suitability of insect farming systems for space travel (Katayama et al., 2008).

Insects have long been known to be able to reproduce inside shuttles and enclosed stations in the zero gravity environment of outer space and can serve both as a source of protein and other nutrients and as a tool for recycling materials and producing soil fertilizer. Mars is the second target of our manned space flight next to the Moon, and possibly the most distant extraterrestrial body to which we could travel, land, and explore within the next half century. Requirements and design of life support for a Mars mission are quite different from those being operated on near Earth orbit or for a lunar mission, because of the long mission duration (2.5 years for round trip travel) (Yamashita et al., 2009). With insects as a protein source that can be cultivated on board a spaceship as well as a station on Mars or another planet, they are the ideal food for astronauts. A recent trial held in a sealed laboratory in Beijing, China, found that three astronauts could subsist healthily and happily with mealworms as their staple protein source for 105 days, in a simulation of a space mission conducted for research purposes (BBC, 2015).

Insects Are an Important and Feasible Solution

Insects are nutritious, delicious, and viable food choice. Their potential is growing due to current trends toward a heightened appreciation of cultural diversity, and a global recognition of the imperative need to address environmental impacts of contemporary agricultural systems.

As we have discussed in this chapter, farmed insects are an ideal solution to address many of our health and environmental concerns going forward. Insects can be efficiently farmed in urban settings. It is estimated that over 2000 insect species are already a part of human diets and the nutrition offered by several of the species matches or surpasses that contained in traditional diets (Premalatha et al., 2011).

Additionally, there is now a synergistic and frenzied interest in cultures other than one’s own. Other cultures may have solutions to feeding the future populations and solutions to being able to afford the energy costs of producing the food. This is not a new concept. We need to remember the story of corn or maize, Zea mais, and how it made its way around the world starting from the Mayan and Aztec civilizations of Central America as a way to quickly harvest large seeds on a cob without a pod or husk covering each individual seed. Maize was orders of magnitude more efficient to harvest than millet or sorghum or even rice for these early agriculturally based people. As large scale agriculture developed to include corn as a main grain, people were not paying attention to the drain corn was on local water supplies, soil fertility, and on human and domestic animal nutrition that supported strong minds and bodies. Maize was high in omega-6 fatty acids and low in omega-3 fatty acids, thereby setting the stage for a population where chronic disease, of metabolic and cardiovascular origins, would thrive (Simopoulos, 2002). We chose large scale efficiency and profit as the focus for agriculture rather than health, either environmental health, or human health.

We are now asking our biosphere for the very best choices in nutritious foods that also support environmental health. We are asking for foods that supply essential nutrients everywhere, to avoid transcontinental and transoceanic transport, but that do not require much land or water to produce. Western cultures are noticing that over one-third of the world’s population are consuming insects. Western cultures are further noticing that this interest is not just related to poverty. In Thailand, Korea, Japan, Botswana, and Mexico, edible insects are sought-after delicacies in both the local marketplaces and pace-setting restaurants. There is a serious upscale interest—light industrial interest in Europe and North America, particularly in the United States, with the Netherlands, England, Denmark, Switzerland, Germany, France, and Italy following suit.

Western cultures are also noticing that edible insects represent a rich source of biodiversity worldwide, with over 2000 species in use, compared to our 15–20 typical food crops. In addition, new taste experiences are being discovered within those 2000 species. This species diversity means most all human communities can find edible insects on their own land or neighboring waterways.

To prepare for the predicted increase in urban insect farms that will supply high-quality protein where the need is the greatest, and to prepare for the products made with insects as an ingredient, specialized information in sectors such as industrial farming, food processing and production, bioengineering, microbiology, medicine, biochemistry, food law, and regulatory processes are needed. And, yes, it is even time to begin to think seriously about the important role that insects for food and feed will no doubt play in preparing for space travel.

Worldwide Acceptance of Insects as Food

There is a growing interest in insects as a food source, and this trend can be found in the number of companies now selling insect-based food products.