Isaiah 40–66: A Commentary, Second Edition

By Michael E. W. Thompson

The book of Isaiah remains one of the most significant works of the Old Testament, dealing with actual responses to a series of political changes and crises--those responses being both of the people of God and also of the dominant great empires of that age. Above all, here are prophetical reactions to the great political changes of the day. Further, here are changes in the way the historical faith of Israel is to be lived out in new ages for the people of Israel's life in both the religious and political settings. In this short and accessible commentary, Michael E. W. Thompson opens up this ancient text for contemporary people.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Cascade Books
• Release date: Apr 18, 2024
• ISBN: 9781666788259

Michael E. W. Thompson

Michael E. W. Thompson is a retired British Methodist minister whose work focuses on the use of the Old Testament in the Christian church.

Book preview

Introduction

The Book of Isaiah

In the beginning of the book of Isaiah we are told (1:1; 2:1) that what follows is from the prophet Isaiah, son of Amoz, who prophesied in the eighth century BCE. There is indeed a good deal in these chapters (especially in chs. 1–39) that is understandable as coming from the era of the reigns of the Judean kings named in 1:1, Jotham, Uzziah, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. Yet at the same time, it has to be said, there is other material here in the book of Isaiah, even in chs. 1–39, that reads more naturally when understood as coming from later times, even as late as the Babylonian exile and its aftermath.¹

As far as chs. 40–55 are concerned, the material is readily understandable when read against the background of the period of the exile in Babylon in the sixth century BCE. Following the siege and destruction of Jerusalem in the sixth century BCE, and the associated deportation of many peoples from Judah and Jerusalem, a group of Israelite people spent the next fifty or so years in Babylon. This was in accord with the general policy of their Babylonian overlord.

Yet in 539 BCE a remarkable new era dawned for these exiles, for in that year the Persian king Cyrus conquered Babylon, having already become king over the Median empire. Cyrus took steps to gain popular approval for his rule: as far as the Babylonians were concerned, the protection of their temples; as far as the Jewish subject people were concerned, he allowed them to return to their own land.

It is this Cyrus about whom we read in Isa 44:28 and 45:13. Further, it has to be said that the whole of Isa 40–55 makes abundant sense when read against this historical background. The setting of Isa 40–55 does seem to be Babylonian, or Chaldean as it is called at certain times in these chapters (see, for example, 43:14; 47:1, 5; 48:14, 20). We also read of the Babylonian gods Bel (Marduk) and Nebo (46:1). References to Zion/Jerusalem are either to indicate the former inhabitants of the city who are now in exile in Babylon, or to the city itself at present in a state of ruins. Yet the promise is that exiles may return home to Jerusalem and rebuild this holy but shattered city.

Thus these chapters, Isa 40–55, exude a profound sense of confidence, and within them is a sense of abundant hope. Though the reality of sin is present, yet the message is of grace that abounds the more. The thrilling message for Israel is that she has served her term, that her penalty is paid, and therefore this prophet is called to comfort his people, to speak kindly to them in the name of their God (40:1–2). The prophet’s thrilling message is:

So the ransomed of the

Lord

shall return, and come to Zion with singing; everlasting joy shall be upon their heads; they shall obtain joy and gladness, and sorrow and sighing shall flee away. (

51

:

11

)

However, unlike Isa 40–55, chs. 56–66 do not read naturally against a sixth-century BCE imminent-return-from-Babylon background. Yet they do make abundant sense in general terms against the backdrop of a later time when life was being reestablished in Jerusalem. Moreover, the word general is used with purpose, for it does have to be said that there is little agreement as to just which historical situation and incidents form the background to particular sections of these chapters. Indeed, while parts of the Old Testament, such as Ezra 1–6, Haggai, and Zech 1–8, appear to come from this period of restoration, they give us few clear details of the sequence of events nor of the religious situation in the city and environments of Jerusalem at the time. We gain the impression from Isa 56–66 that all was not working out particularly well in the matter of the return from exile, and that there were disillusioned people who urgently needed encouragement. Further, it is clear that the new religious and social life already needed to be reformed.

It does have to be said that these closing chapters do not display the homogeneity of chs. 40–55, and that it does seem possible that they may have come from a number of authors. Yet they can be readily understood when read against the background of those early years when life was being reestablished in the homeland. They reflect a community in transition, one on the one hand seeking to apply ancient commands and traditions to a new situation, and on the other beset with continuing injustices and lack of religious faithfulness.

I. Isaiah 40–55

1. Authorship

What can be said about the authorship of Isa 40–55? Opinion is divided between two basic theories. On the one hand are a few conservative scholars who defend the traditional position, which claims that chs. 40–55 were composed by Isaiah of Jerusalem, the eighth-century prophet, who was predicting what would one day take place.² Those who argue for this viewpoint stress the various common themes and vocabulary that are found throughout the book.³ Stylistic differences are explained by pointing out that in the message of the forgiveness of sins and the promise of the return home there will naturally be differences in style and language as compared with the earlier proclamation of the Lord’s judgment upon his sinful people and the threat of exile that hangs over them.

On the other hand are those, the vast majority of scholars, who emphasize that while indeed there are themes and linguistic details common to chs. 1–39 and 40–55, there are also marked differences in both the style of writing and the message that only the work of a different author can explain. Further, such words as are found, for example, in Isa 48:6–7, clearly suggest an author active in the time of the exile, not one speaking some decades earlier:

You have heard; now see all this; and will you not declare it? From this time forward I make you hear new things, hidden things that you have not known. They are created now, not long ago; before today you had never heard of them, so that you could not say, I already knew them. (

48

:

6–7

)

The approach in this present work is that these chapters come from a different prophet from Isaiah of Jerusalem. Yet two things need to be stated at this point. First, that the prophet of these chapters is anonymous, perhaps only once revealing a little of his ministry to the exiles, A voice says, ‘Cry out!’ And I said, ‘What shall I cry?’ (40:6). Second, it does have to be said there are similarities and even repetitions in the language between the various parts of the Isaiah book, a matter that will receive some notice later in this work. See below, 16–20.

2. Themes

What this anonymous prophet proclaimed was a message about God, God’s people Israel, and God’s chosen city Zion/Jerusalem. We shall see later that these are also the main themes of the whole book of Isaiah, but the fact remains that in chs. 40–55 they are given utterance with a particular power and compelling beauty, with some emphases and nuances that arise out of this prophet’s particular historical setting.

i. God

In these chapters we are presented with a series of remarkably bold pictures of God. He is the Lord of all ages, The Lord is the everlasting God, the Creator of the ends of the earth (40:28), or—as elsewhere expressed—he is the first . . . the last (41:4; 44:6; 48:12). Moreover, he has purposes to fulfill in the world (44:28; 46:10; 53:10; 55:10–11). Thus God is the Lord of history (45:9–13), the one who has purposed all things from the beginning (41:21–29), so that it is he alone who can say what will take place (41:26). He is the only God (44:6–8), there being no god apart from this Lord (43:11), and thus those who worship any other God are greatly deluded (44:9–20; 46:1–13). Yet this mighty—indeed incomparable (40:12–26)—Lord has a particular relationship with his ancient people, those who, as this prophet describes them are no less than the descendents of Abraham:

But you, Israel, my servant, Jacob, whom I have chosen, the offspring of Abraham, my friend; you whom I took from the ends of the earth, and called from its farthest corners, saying to you, You are my servant, I have chosen you and not cast you off; do not fear, for I am with you, do not be afraid, for I am your God; I will strengthen you, I will help you, I will uphold you with my victorious right hand. (

41

:

8–10

)

These twin aspects of the Lord Yhwh are inextricably bound together in the mystery of the divine being, and are given expression in these chapters through the title the Holy One of Israel (41:14, 16, 20; 43:3, 14; 45:11; 47:4; 48:17; 49:7 [twice]; 54:5; 55:5). This expression is also found with some frequency in chs. 1–39 of the Isaiah book (1:4; 5:19, 24; 10:20; 12:6; 17:7; 29:19; 30:11–12, 15; 31:1; 37:23), and also, but with rather less frequency, in chs. 56–66 (60:9, 14), and comparatively rarely elsewhere in the Old Testament (2 Kgs 19:22; Pss 71:22; 78:41; 89:18; Jer 50:29; 51:5). The title Holy One of Israel emphasizes both the transcendent otherness of the Lord, and also his immediate presence with and concern for his own people, the people of Israel.

The particular word given by this mighty Lord to his prophet for proclamation to the people in the days of their exile in Babylon is that Yhwh is fully aware of their plight and predicament. Far from his being unaware of their distant exile (40:27), the Lord is in fact their redeemer, their deliverer:

Do not fear, you worm Jacob, you insect Israel! I will help you, says the

Lord

; your Redeemer is the Holy One of Israel. (

41

:

14

)

For I am the

Lord

your God, the Holy One of Israel, your Savior; I give Egypt as your ransom, Nubia and Seba in exchange for you. (

43

:

3

)

Indeed, Yhwh of all, the maker of all things, has an eternal commitment to his own people:

[E]ven to your old age I am he, even when you turn gray I will carry you. I have made, and I will bear; I will carry and will save. (

46

:

4

)

In order to make this possible, not only is the erstwhile powerful Babylon to be reduced to servitude (ch. 47), but Cyrus the Persian king will be the human mediator who will make this possible (41:1–5; 44:24—45:7). He has been called by none other than God in order that these new divine purposes may be put into effect:

Who says of Cyrus, He is my shepherd, and he shall carry out all my purpose; and who says of Jerusalem, It shall be rebuilt, and of the temple, Your foundation shall be laid. (

44

:

28

)

Yet, involved as he is with his ancient people, the Lord’s purposes yet concern a far wider constituency. These chapters convey a thrilling vision, one prophet’s vision glorious, that one day all people will acknowledge him:

Turn to me and be saved, all the ends of the earth! For I am God, and there is no other. By myself I have sworn, from my mouth has gone forth in righteousness a word that shall not return: To me every knee shall bow, every tongue shall swear. (

45

:

22–23

)

In the meantime, perhaps as something of a firstfruits of this, the inhabitants of the isles sing a new and glad song of praise to the Lord:

Sing to the

Lord

a new song, his praise from the end of the earth! Let the sea roar and all that fills it, the coastlands and their inhabitants. (

42

:

10

)

ii. Israel

Then there are God’s people, the people of Israel, or as so often designated in these chapters, Jacob. These are the people whom God has made (44:2), who are the descendants of Abraham (41:8; 51:2), and to whom Yhwh makes his promise of deliverance (41:14; 51:9–16). These people have been sinners, and it was for this reason that the Lord sent them into their exile in Babylon (42:14–25), and they continue to be (spiritually) deaf and blind to God (42:18–19). Yet the message with which this prophecy opens is thrilling news indeed for them:

Comfort, O comfort my people, says your God. Speak tenderly to Jerusalem, and cry to her that she has served her term, that her penalty is paid, that she has received from the

Lord

’s hand double for all her sins. (

40

:

1–2

; compare

43

:

25

)

Further, they are permitted to return home to Jerusalem (48:20–21), and in order to make that possible hills will be brought down, uneven ways will be made smooth (40:3–4), and the journey will be eased (41:17–20). There will be a new exodus, in some ways like that one of old from the slavery in Egypt, but in other ways so unlike it: the new one will not be in haste and darkness but will take place in a measured and stately fashion (43:16–21).

It is necessary at this point to give consideration to four passages that speak in one way or another about either a servant or else a number of servants. No indication is given in these passages as to the identity of the servant(s), and the question has been discussed time and time again over the centuries. The fact that this matter is being discussed at this point in this work is to anticipate to some extent the conclusions that I come to concerning the matter of the identity of the servant(s).

The four passages concerned are Isa 42:1–4; 49:1–6; 50:4–9; and 52:13—53:12, and the study of them may be said to have been brought into focus by the German scholar Bernard Duhm (1847–1928), who grouping them together, described them as Servant Songs (Ebed-Lieder).⁴ Although elsewhere in Isa 40–55 Israel is referred to as servant, Duhm argued that these four passages stand apart from the rest of the prophecy. He maintained that they were not composed by the prophet responsible for the rest of the book, but that they began life as explanatory marginal notes (glosses) by a later hand. Duhm argued that at some later stage they became incorporated into the main text. It has to be said, however, that there is no case to be made on the grounds of language and style to deny these four passages to the prophet responsible for the rest of Isa 40–55, and more recent approaches generally regard them as proper and constituent parts of the text,⁵ and seek to interpret them as a part of the overall themes of these chapters. This is the approach taken here.

For a consideration of each of these passages the reader is directed to what follows in the main commentary, but something needs to be said now on the old question of the servant’s identity. This is indeed a question that has long been asked, certainly going back to the first century of the Christian church, as is witnessed by the question of the Ethiopian eunuch to Philip the evangelist concerning Isa 53:7–8, The eunuch asked Philip, ‘About whom, may I ask you, does the prophet say this, about himself or about someone else?’ (Acts 8:34). The fact is that over the centuries a great search has taken place, directed towards the discovery of the identity of the one servant spoken about in all four passages. In general the theories that have been presented suggest that the servant is either an individual person, or the prophet himself, or a group like Israel (or a part of Israel), or a messianic figure.⁶

Something of those various theories that have been put forward, and their relative merits, will be set out in the commentary that follows, as the four passages are discussed. However, the general approach being adopted here is that we should not be too concerned as to the precise identity of the servant, and that we should not seek to come up with one identity that will apply in the case of all four passages. My own judgment is that these passages speak about aspects of how God’s work in future times will be done. I wish to suggest that it is not so much a matter of there being one servant who will do specific things and act in these particular ways, but rather that what we are being given here are four pictures of how the servant people of God will live and act in future days. I see the emphasis in the first two passages (42:1–4; 49:1–6) as being on aspects of Israel’s new mission to the people of the wider world, while that of the third and the fourth (50:4–9; 52:13—53:12) is on suffering as an inevitable part of the life of obedience to God’s will. These matters—internationalism and suffering—I see as vital aspects of the faith that Israel learned through the experience of the exile; the first in so far as Israel was forced to live among the nations, devoid of particular power and privilege, and made thereby to consider the wider world as the domain of God’s activity, the second as a great insight that came out of the harshness of the sufferings of an individual, or of a group, that there can come new life and fresh hope for others. These matters are given more detailed consideration in the discussion below that follows the exegesis of the fourth servant passage, Isa 52:13—53:12.

iii. Jerusalem/Zion

The book of Lamentations provides a somber witness to the sense of devastation and dismay experienced by the Israelite people on the destruction of their city, Jerusalem, by the Babylonians in 587 BCE. Though parts of the first section of the Isaiah book (chs. 1–39) speak of a sense of the well-being of Jerusalem come what may (28:16; 37:33–35), other passages talk of the destruction of the city due to the sin of its people (3:1–26; 10:12). The book of Lamentations certainly understands the decimation of Jerusalem as resulting from sin (Lam 1:8–9).

Yet with the beginnings of the prophecies of the so-called Second Isaiah (Isa 40–55) there comes the thrilling message that the sins of the people of Jerusalem are now forgiven (40:2), that the Lord is here and that he is caring for his people and leading them forward (40:9–11). Indeed, as far as the city of Jerusalem/Zion is concerned, the city walls are constantly before the Lord, never forgotten by him (49:14–16). This city, it is promised, will be rebuilt in great splendor (54:11–14), and even greater size, this being dictated by the numbers of the city’s own people who will be coming home from their various exilic settings (49:17–21). Indeed, this renewed city will become a place of pilgrimage for many peoples (45:14).

These confident prophecies must have been founded upon an equally great confidence in Yhwh. Certainly, alternative views of God must have been readily believable—either that he no longer had the sort of power that he once had, or else that he had decided to abandon his chosen city. Such assumptions could readily have been drawn from the experience and aftermath of the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem in 587 BCE. However, the book of Isaiah accords the city of Jerusalem a crucial role in the matter of God’s relationship with the world and with his people. It is surely no accident that in Isa 40–55 the words Jerusalem/Zion stand both for the city of that name, and also for its inhabitants. Moreover, the city of Jerusalem is here portrayed as the earthly setting where the promises of God are made manifest. Thus, there is great importance attached to the word giving assurance that the city will be rebuilt, and that it should prepare itself for its future greatness and glory (52:1–2). Yet this city also bears a great witness to the nations around, witnessing to the Holy One of Israel, his greatness and majesty, his care for his people, and his mighty purposes which encompass all (52:9–10).

3. Style

The very hopeful and encouraging message of Isa 40–55 is set forth in a number of particular modes of expression. In all probability this prophet, the so-called Second Isaiah, in the first place proclaimed this message orally, as his prophetic predecessors had done. However, some scholars, observing the finely crafted literary structure and poetic diction of these chapters, have argued that all this was first written rather than preached.⁷ Yet while the style of these chapters is different from much else in the Old Testament’s prophetical texts, so too is the background. Whereas Second Isaiah’s prophetic predecessors believed themselves called by God to proclaim a message of divine judgment on their people, Second Isaiah was called to proclaim new life and hope, for his people’s sins were forgiven, and they were to be restored to their own land, and their city was also to be restored. Such a thrilling message demanded a particular manner of expression in order that the full force of this hope might be conveyed. Among the distinctive modes of expression employed by this prophet mention may be made of the following:

i. Announcements and Promises of Salvation

In these passages Yhwh, through the prophet, speaks to his people, Israel. They are assured that they have nothing to fear, and that they are to be helped by God. This will result in much happening for Israel, while for the Lord there will be the fulfillment of his purposes. Examples of such promises of salvation are found in 41:8–13, 14–16; 43:1–4, 5–7; 44:1–5; 54:4–6; and announcements of salvation in 41:17–20; 42:14–17; 43:16–21; 45:14–17; 49:7–12.

ii. Trial Scenes

See Isa 41:1–5, 21–29; 43:8–13; 44:6–8, 21–22; 45:20–25. While the prophet had a great new message of hope from God for his people, at the same time he had to make them understand why it was they were at present in exile. Thus in these passages the Lord is portrayed as a plaintiff, one who has a complaint against his people. It is as if the Lord Yhwh is making sure of a court hearing, so that his grievances about his people can be properly aired. All this takes place on a large stage: frequently the hills, or the heavens and the earth, are called to be witnesses. Further, the Lord as well as being plaintiff is also the judge, and it is through this judge’s words that the message of the prophet comes through, namely that the people’s suffering was deserved, and yet also because of the abounding love of God they are to be freed from their exilic conditions and be restored to their homeland.

iii. Disputations

See Isa 40:12–17, 18–26, 27–31; 45:9–13; 46:9–11; 48:1–11, 12–16. Whereas in the trial scenes it is God who is portrayed as arguing with his people, here it is the prophet himself in dispute with them. These disputations are generally built up of a number of rhetorical questions (which abound with the words who?, what?, how?, where?) that admit only of such answers as God alone, and none other, can be this or do that. The disputation usually begins from a fact about which all are agreed, and proceeds by means of analogy to a statement of more questionable matters. Thus in 45:9–13 the prophet begins by stating how ridiculous it is for a pot to criticize the potter, and goes on to say how incomprehensible it is for the people of Israel to question Yhwh their maker about his plans.

iv. Hymns

See Isa 42:10–13; 44:23; 49:13; 52:9–10. From time to time the prophet breaks into a hymn of praise, such as,

Sing for joy, O heavens, and exult, O earth; break forth, O mountains, into singing! For the

Lord

has comforted his people, and will have compassion on his suffering ones. (

49

:

13

)

At other times there are hymnic phrases that occur in the prophet’s words (for example, 42:5; 43:1, 16–17; 44:2; 45:18), and even at other times it is as if the Lord breaks into an expression of praise of himself (41:4b; 42:8; 43:10–13; 44:24–28; 45:6–7; 51:15). All these are reminiscent of the hymns of praise that we find in the book of Psalms (for example Pss 8; 29; 33; 46–48; and others), and perhaps both the Isaianic and Psalmic hymns come from the earlier setting of worship in the Jerusalem temple in the days before the exile, and continued to be employed in Israelite worship during the exile. Our prophet laid hold of this tradition of worship material and used it in the proclamation of his message about the incomparable, forgiving, and delivering God. Certainly, in what he was called to proclaim there was much cause for praise.

v. The Language of Metaphor

Metaphor is a form of speech, whereby we speak about one thing in terms which are seen to be suggestive of another.⁸ For example, The Lord is my shepherd (Ps 23:1). Simile, it should be noted is more illustrative, stating that someone/something is like someone/something else. For example, Burns’s celebrated line, O, my Luve’s like a red red rose. In Isa 40–55 we are presented with a remarkable series of metaphors for the Lord Yhwh, perhaps indeed the most powerful series of metaphors for God to be found anywhere in the Old Testament. And this, it may be noted in passing, is in prophecy that at its beginning poses the rhetorical question, To whom then will you compare me, or who is my equal? says the Holy One (40:25). But here we read of the Lord being portrayed in kingly terms and language (for example, 52:7–10, where he is proclaimed as king), but also as a shepherd (49:9b–12 [note also that 40:11 has the simile of Yhwh being like a shepherd]). Then Isa 44:21–22 expresses the relationship of the Lord Yhwh and his people in terms of the master-servant metaphor, while in 54:5 the Lord is portrayed as husband. Further, we should not fail to observe that these chapters also employ the metaphor of the Lord as mother, not only in the sense of bearing children (42:14 simile) but also of nurturing them (49:14–16).

Further, with passages such as 40:10–11 we have a combination of metaphors, for there Yhwh is portrayed both as a warrior and also in shepherd language—seemingly very contrasting pictures of God. And that does perhaps demonstrate what is taking place in these chapters through the rich application of metaphorical language: quite simply it is an attempt to speak of the incomparable Lord, and to render some account of his glorious being and the tenacity of his care and purposes for his people, all in terms of human language. In order to express this divine incomparability in the language of earthly life, a wide range of metaphors is employed in what is at the same time both deeply moving and apparently contradictory.

It is not only the Lord who is portrayed in this rich series of metaphors and similes. There is also Jerusalem/Zion that is