Engineering Applications in Livestock Production

By Ashok Pandey

Engineering Applications in Livestock Production covers the recent advancements and technological developments in the field of livestock production engineering in great detail. The major advances covered in this book include the use of artificial intelligence, image processing, Internet of Things, novel animal product processing technologies, farm automation systems, sensor technology, bioengineering practices and even engineered housing systems among others.

• The book includes applications of emerging sensor based and intelligent techniques/systems in the field of livestock production and management
• The book will have separate chapters dedicated to innovative approaches in the livestock sector such as artificial intelligence, micro and nano sensors, IoT, image processing and farm automation
• Specialists contribution of chapters provide comprehensive details while assisting the understanding of the concepts

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Jan 20, 2024
• ISBN: 9780323985819

Book preview

Preface

The livestock sector has grown tremendously in the past years and has generated employment opportunities for over 1.3 billion people worldwide. Due to the major dependence on sustainable production and management aspects of livestock, several engineering interventions have been incorporated to increase the productivity and profitability of livestock enterprises. This book titled Engineering Applications in Livestock Production is the first of its kind and covers, in great detail, the recent advancements and technological developments in the interdisciplinary field of livestock production engineering. Covering multiple facets of the livestock sector, this book will serve as a single terminus for students and researchers worldwide, seeking a wider range of information on engineering applications in livestock production. The major advances covered in this book include novel animal product processing technologies, farm automation systems, sensor technologies, bioengineering practices, and engineered animal housing systems. In addition, the book also covers the application and scope of agriculture 4.0 tools such as artificial intelligence, image processing, blockchain, and Internet of Things (IoT), among others.

The contents of this book span over 15 chapters that have been contributed by global experts in the field of livestock production and management, livestock product processing, and animal waste management. Chapter 1 is introductory and covers the current worldwide scenario of livestock population and mechanization. It also briefly describes the scope of engineering in livestock farms in housing, watering, feeding, cleaning, waste management, energy, expert systems, automation, and other facets of mechanization. Chapter 2 focuses on the approaches of basic considerations for engineered livestock housing in intensive livestock production. The chapter also covers the biological needs of the animals, labor efficiency, production performance, construction costs, and animal welfare aspects while discussing considerations for future expansions in livestock buildings. Chapter 3 covers the animal feeding technologies such as concentrate, green fodder, dry roughage, and total mixed ration feeding. The chapter also discusses the various forms for supplying feed such as in pellet, crumbles, mash, and cooked form after the base ingre­dients have been processed using different technologies (e.g., grinding, chopping, chemical treatment, popping, rolling, mixing, etc.). Chapter 4 highlights the importance and application of sensors in livestock production. The chapter covers the use of sensors based on modern artificial intelligence (AI), IoT, and other information technologies (IT) in livestock farms that have led to the transition of traditional livestock farming into precision livestock farming (PLF) or smart animal agriculture. Chapter 5 provides insights into various applications of computer vision and image processing technologies (tracking of individual animals, health and disease monitoring, body size and weight measurement and analysis of milk and meat quality), limitations, research gaps and future prospects. Chapter 6 discusses the integration of bioengineering with animal science for novel interdisciplinary applications in veterinary medicine, animal production, and disease control. This chapter also touches upon the scope of AI, machine learning, and cloud computing in livestock science.

Chapter 7 explains how cattle interact with their environment, how climate change affects them, and how to adapt while maintaining food and nutritional security, and also details the development strategies for climate-smart animal production systems. Chapter 8 focuses on emerging IT technologies such as the IoT, AI, blockchain, and big data while covering their concept, background, and applications in livestock production and management. Chapter 9 intends to provide the readers with an overview of small implements to advanced machines used in the livestock sector for various operations. The chapter also covers the application of accelerometers, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags and Global Positioning System (GPS), etc. for animal tracking and health monitoring. Chapter 10 focuses on the sustainable disposal of fat and protein from animal waste and nutrient recovery from livestock manure. The chapter also discusses different waste management systems and strategies for promoting sustainable animal waste utilization. Chapter 11 highlighted the importance of energy conservation in livestock farms. The chapter covers different energy-saving systems, their advantages, and disadvantages and how they contribute to animal welfare. In addition, the application of these systems, methods, and techniques in the reduction of CO2 emissions from livestock farms is also discussed. Chapter 12 deals with the processing of milk, meat, leather, wool, and animal waste into value-added products through in­novative technologies. In supplementation, Chapter 13 comprises the processing, safety aspects, and traceability of animal products while describing the standardization procedure of animal products, including milk, meat, and eggs. Chapter 14 specifically discusses representative examples of conventional and advanced biomedical devices which may be used for providing proper health care to livestock. Biomedical devices intended for diagnostics, therapeutics, and managemental purposes have been covered in this chapter. Finally, Chapter 15 discusses the interesting nexus between man, machine, and animals beginning with the early domestication of animals to the application of modern PLF technologies in the field and their impact on animals.

All the chapters have included relevant basic and applied information and development due to the importance of such unexplored engineering applications in the field of animal science and the nature of their novelty. All chapters hold unique perspectives, and we hope that the readers will find the contents of this book intriguing and beneficial in their respective research areas.

We are grateful to the authors for compiling the pertinent information required for chapter writing, which we believe will be a valuable source for both the scientific community and the audience in general. We are thankful to the expert reviewers for providing their useful comments and scientific insights, which helped shape the chapter organization and improved the scientific discussions, and overall quality of the chapters. We sincerely thank the Elsevier team comprising senior book acquisition editor, Kathrine Esten, and the entire Elsevier production team for their support in publishing this book.

Editors

Ayon Tarafdar

Ashok Pandey

Gyanendra Kumar Gaur

Mukesh Singh

Hari Om Pandey

CHAPTER 1

Introduction to engineering applications in livestock production⍟

Sheikh Firdous Ahmada, and Gyanendra Kumar Gaurb

a Division of Animal Genetics, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India

b Livestock Production and Management Section, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India

1.1 Introduction

The global human population is ever-increasing and is projected to cross 9 billion by 2050 (Boretti and Rosa, 2019). The increasing population is projected to be coupled with higher demand for food resources. However, the resource base is limited and already constrained with increased population, development of civilization, and changing lifestyles. Agriculture and allied activities form an intricate part of most human civilizations across different nations (Harris and Fuller, 2014). The progress of various human civilizations has been directly and indirectly dependent on agriculture-related activities. Currently, most societies are dependent on agriculture and allied sectors for food products, trade, and other services including livelihood dependence of the masses (Satterthwaite et al., 2010). Livestock, as one of the sub-sectors of agriculture, plays an important role in ensuring food and nutritional security to the masses (Swaminathan and Bhavani, 2013). It is vital to ensure sustainable economies, especially in developing and under-developed countries wherein nutritional insecurity remains a tremendous challenge. The livestock sector ensures the continuous supply of food products for human consumption throughout the year and provides a major source of ready income and employment to rural masses (Sansoucy, 1995). However, the ever-increasing human population puts huge pressure on agricultural and livestock production systems and requires them to be highly efficient and sustainable in the use of natural resources without affecting animal welfare conditions (Aydin, 2017).

The livestock sector has kept an appreciable pace with the ever-increasing human population along with changing agro-climatic and economic trends. It is continuously evolving against the increased demand for animal-based food products and changing feeding habits. The demand for livestock products has been dynamic since time immemorial; it has been projected to be doubled by 2050 (Rojas-Downing et al., 2017). According to projected estimates with the 2005/07 baseline, 107 million more tons of meat will be required to feed the increased human population in 2050 while 5.5 million tons of milk will also be essential to feed the consumers (Alexandratos and Bruinsma, 2012). The increased demand for livestock products is expected both in terms of improved quality and higher quantities. The improvement in production from livestock systems shall be in line with the changing lifestyle, food habits, and increasing per-capita income (Thornton et al., 2007). The maintenance of a near-equilibrium state by the livestock sector with increased demands is mainly attributed to improved penetration of scientific and technological advances (Groher et al., 2020). The productivity of animals and profitability of farmers have consequently increased in recent times (Göncü and Güngör, 2018). However, livestock production systems are still blamed for their reduced efficiency and adverse environmental impact (Rust, 2019). Soon, various plant- as well as animal-based production systems will be a part of intense competition for a limited natural resource base, especially land, and water (Thornton and Gerber, 2010). Immense development has been realized in various aspects of animal husbandry including breeding, heeding, weeding, and propagation of animals with minimal resource support available. However, there remains enough scope for improvement in production efficiency and genetic gains. Mechanization and advanced technologies with the application of various engineering principles find abundant relevance in various aspects of livestock production and management. These technologies possess the potential to improve production performance and make processes highly efficient. The present book shall act as a base to elaborate on different applications of engineering technologies and mechanization in improved animal production and management to keep pace with the increased demand for livestock products in sustainable ways.

1.2 Present state of animal husbandry

Livestock is an important source of animal protein for human consumption in terms of milk, meat, and eggs. Livestock also contributes significantly to agricultural crop productivity by providing nutrients through manure and the draught power of bullocks. The global meat and dairy sectors have recorded appreciable growth rates of 5.1% and 3.6%, respectively (Robinson et al., 2014). The per-capita consumption of milk and meat products has increased over time and has even accelerated during recent decades (Alexandratos and Bruinsma, 2012).

The optimal productivity of animals, especially in developing nations, is often hampered by poor genetic makeup, inadequate nutritional and management support, increased disease incidence, and limited value addition of livestock produce. There remains tremendous scope for improvement of profitability and productivity in livestock production systems. Global milk production has seen considerable progress during the last few decades. India has been the top milk producer across the globe with its growth driven mainly by the White Revolution in the 1970s. It contributes around 23% of the total milk production of the globe (Kumar et al., 2022). India is followed by United States, Brazil, China, and Pakistan as leading milk-producing nations worldwide. India is home to a large inventory of animal genetic resources that forms 10.71% of the total global livestock population (Mala­viya et al., 2020) with 192.49 million cattle and 109.85 million buffaloes; it is ranked at the prime spot concerning the global cattle and buffalo population. Other farm animal species contribute around 43.61% to the Indian livestock population.

The livestock sector provides livelihood opportunities to more than 900 million small-scale producers in developing countries (Balehegn et al., 2020). According to Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), more than 150 million households are engaged in milk production-related activities across the globe, with a higher proportion of engagement in developing and third-world countries (Kumar et al., 2022). The rural economy is hugely dependent on milk production activities and is one of the main sustenance factors ensuring the livelihood of the masses. The livestock sector ensures livelihood security through various means including income from the sale of milk and milk products, insurance against drought, ready-to-encash capital, household nutrition (especially for children), fuel (obtained from dung and slurry) for cooking, nutrient-rich manure for crops and draught power for farming, etc. Mostly, milk production activities are undertaken in a small-holding capacity with only one or two animals reared per family. Relatively quick returns are ensured by small-scale milk production efforts, which ensure readily available capital sources for farmers. However, the trend is changing and several organized farms have been established in the recent past, managing a larger number of animals.

Global milk production has been projected to increase by around 33% in 2030 over the 2015–16 baseline (FAO, 2018). The improvement in milch production is mainly expected due to two reasons, i.e., an increase in the number of dairy farms and the improved milk yield (productivity) from animals. Similarly, meat production has been projected to increase by 19% in 2030 over the same baseline (FAO, 2018; Windsor et al., 2021). India and China are expected to be the top performers with regard to these projections. The total milk production in India is around 209.96 million metric tons with per-capita availability of 427 grams/day (2020–21). The dairy sector contributes immensely to the agricultural GDP (gross domestic product) of developing countries including India. This sector has grown into a thriving enterprise in India and has recorded tremendous growth, especially in the post-independence era. The growth was mainly due to policy decisions that led to the occurrence of the White Revolution, the role of cooperatives, the systematic breeding of animals, and superior management interventions in terms of the nutrition and healthcare of animals.

Dairy production has recorded considerable growth in India which has ensured its leading producer nation status for the last few decades continuously. The total milk production of India was mere 17 million metric tons at the dawn of independence (1950–51) which reached 127.90 million metric tons during 2011–12. At present, the total milk production of India has reached 209.96 million metric tons (2021–22). However, certain hindrances still hamper the growth rate and inclusive development of the dairy sector. Low productivity of indigenous germplasm and an intense threat from crossbreeding and changing agro-climatic trends along with the endemic nature of diseases are among the major threats to the development of the livestock sector in general and the dairy sector in particular. Other considerable threats include hindrances due to the ever-increasing human population and demands thereof with competition for similar feed ingredients, increased pressure on existing pasture lands and their degradation via human encroachment, and other anthropogenic activities. This situation applies to most developing countries. Given these hindrances, the dairy sector promises better success when compared to other sub-sectors of agriculture. One of the other hindrances posed to optimal animal production is frequent changes in animal breeding policies. The breeding policy for most of the farm animal species has revolved around crossbreeding and exploitation of heterosis and complementarity. One of the main issues with animal populations produced from crossbreeding experiments includes stagnation and wilting of production performance of filial generations after a better performance during the initial few generations. Promotion, propagation, and conservation of indigenous germplasm have, thus, received increased efforts during the last decade across various low-income nations.

Environmental conditions, besides the genetic makeup of an animal, are among the prime factors that affect its phenotype and optimal productivity (Baye et al., 2011). Among various environmental factors, nutrition holds prime significance as it contributes around 60%–70% of the cost of dairy production and has a considerable effect on the production performance of animals (Kırkpınar and Açıkgöz, 2018). Adequate nutrition supply is crucial for the optimal production of animals. Besides being related to profitability and productivity, the feeding regimen of the livestock population is directly related to its environmental impact. In this regard, an inadequate feed resource base is one of the main constraints hampering the optimal production and profitability of animals. The situation is complicated by competition between humans and animals for common food resources (Robinson et al., 2014). Presently, India faces a deficit of 35.6% green fodder and 44% concentrate feed ingredients for animals (Singh et al., 2022). According to other estimates, India faces a shortfall of 21% with respect to dry fodder requirements along with a shortage in green fodder and concentrate feed up to the level of 26% and 34%, respectively at the basal level of 2015. The deficit is projected to increase to 23%, 40%, and 38% levels by 2025. On the other hand, the scope of raising animals on pasture/green forages is limited in developing nations with shrinkage due to the increased rate of conversion of agricultural land for commercial purposes. Water scarcity further complicates the situation.

Animals are considered a source for the generation of greenhouse gases leading to global warming. They are the creatures that are adversely affected by the ill effects of global warming due to which the overall production and productivity of animals are hampered. The livestock sector contributes significantly to the generation of greenhouse gases. This is mainly attributed to the release of gaseous products of digestion produced through enteric fermentation and manure, indirect disruption of important nutrient cycles, and definite effect on various biodiversity aspects (Gilbert et al., 2018). Increased livestock population also results in adversely altered ecological parameters, mainly due to overgrazing of pasture lands. Climate change is itself a significant threat to livestock production as it is destined to affect various parameters including crop yields (and nutrient availability), water availability, the incidence of floods and droughts, disease patterns, biodiversity, and precipitation (Rojas-Downing et al., 2017). Carbon constraints and increased regulations related to animal welfare pose a significant challenge to further enhance the productivity of livestock and the profitability of farmers in the current era. Furthermore, livestock is mostly associated with dreadful public health implications in terms of zoonotic diseases. These diseases include influenza, brucellosis, Q-fever, and others.

The breeding interventions to improve indigenous livestock through crossbreeding have helped in increasing the milk production of the nation. However, it also increased the susceptibility of crossbred populations to different diseases. The growth of the livestock sector in developing countries is hampered by an increased incidence of diseases and their endemic nature. These diseases mainly include foot and mouth disease (FMD), lumpy skin disease, brucellosis, theileriosis, classical swine fever (CSF), peste des petits ruminants (PPR), hemorrhagic septicemia, etc. Consequently, many disease control programs have been started in the affected countries to control and prevent these diseases and reduce their mortality and morbidity rates. These programs have led to the development of different indigenous vaccines and diagnostic kits against major livestock diseases.

1.3 Scope of engineering applications in livestock farms

The paradigm changes have been recently perceived in food habits of the ever-increasing human population, agro-climatic trends, and consumers’ expectations vis-à-vis hygiene of food being served on the platter. Subsequently, different facets have emerged concerning the economic, social, and ecological performance of the farm. Mechanization of agriculture-related activities has truly revolutionized various aspects of food production and helped to keep pace with the ever-increasing human population (McNulty and Grace, 2009). Appreciable progress has been realized concerning agricultural mechanization in developed as well as developing countries. Agricultural mechanization mainly started with the introduction of tractors and tractor-driven equipment in farming operations. It has led to partial or complete replacement of animal-driven tools including ploughers, seeders, weeders, thrashers, sprayers, etc. with energy-driven equipment under overall human control. It helps to minimize human involvement in various agricultural activities and eventually reduces labor expenses. However, there remains ample scope for enhancing and upgrading the existing agricultural mechanization facilities. The United States tops the global nations with around 95% mechanization coverage of its farm operations. In South Asian nations, the highest coverage of farm mechanization is reported in India followed by Nepal and Bangladesh (Aryal et al., 2021). The level of farm mechanization in India stands at 40%–45% only while it is 80% in Russia, 75% in Brazil, and 57% in China (Mehta et al., 2014). In India, farm mechanization mainly involves the use of mechanically driven tractors followed by pumps, thrashers, harvesters, and power tillers. However, exclusive estimates for coverage of mechanization in animal husbandry may be difficult to predict from these figures.

The process of mechanization in the livestock sector possesses the potential to transform the farmers’ economy. However, mechanization in the livestock sector is limited with most of the activities undertaken manually. The reduced penetration is attributed mainly to the abundance of labor force in developing countries with chores mostly undertaken by homemaker women. The mechanization of various operations in the livestock subsector is mainly related to housing, feeding and watering, cleaning, milking, slaughter of animals, and manure handling. The basic logic behind the introduction of mechanization in the livestock sector is the reduction in drudgery along with efficient production efficiency (Sims and Kienzle, 2017). The effective application of automation and decision support systems in various activities is required for the optimal transformation of the livestock sector for reaping rich dividends. Overall, the labor force accounts for around 30%–40% of the total cost of livestock production (Sansoucy, 1995; Rehman et al., 2017). Dairying is a labor-intensive activity that involved animal rearing with tedious and time-consuming chores. Women are involved in various activities from production to marketing level that involves herding, milking, watering and cleaning, etc. Gender-specific roles and sensitization thereof help in economic production. The introduction of affordable and user-friendly machinery may help in better diffusion of mechanization practices in livestock production systems. The mechanization process needs to be gender-conscious to cater to the need of female-dominated sections of livestock rearing. Besides the easing of farm operations and reduction in drudgery level; improved milk production, better waste management, and sustainable bio-energy utilization should be other objectives of introducing and using mechanization in livestock production systems. It shall also decrease the cost of labor, make processes efficient and improve the timeliness of operations. Indirectly, it shall also improve the health and welfare of animals as well as farmers.

Among different sub-sectors of livestock, dairying is one of the primary ones to adopt mechanization at the preliminary level. This is mainly attributable to the tedious nature of milking animals and needs to be completed within the shortest possible time. The milking machine was a welcome addition with regard to the mechanization of the dairy /livestock sector. More recently, milking robots have been introduced for milking animals. Automatic smart sensors are currently used to assess milk quantity and quality and adjust the concentrate mix as per the production performance and requirements thereof based on the physiological needs of animals (Groher et al., 2020; Ordolff, 2001). Mechanization is required to convert livestock production into an easier and more efficient enterprise, producing economical produce with better quality attributes. Mechanization of the dairy subsector is expected to cover major operations from milk production to marketing.

Engineering applications in different fields of animal husbandry are destined to improve various aspects of animal production, reproduction, health and welfare. These technological interventions involving engineering applications shall be related to real-time electronic data recording pertaining to milking, weighing, estrus detection, feeding, livestock housing and design of waste management systems and equipment related to different routine farm operations. Mostly, the interventions of mechanization in the livestock sector are divided into two sections, i.e., interventions at feeding and watering, at the care and management level.

1.3.1 Engineering interventions for optimal feeding and watering

Mechanistic interventions for efficient feeding in animals involve the development and use of mechanized equipment such as choppers, mowers, conditioners, bailers, loaders, silage makers, mixers, grinders, and others. Conveyor belts are used in modern farms to transport feed ingredients to animal-rearing sheds easily and efficiently. Mechanization has also been introduced into the watering processes under different livestock production systems. Intelligent and smart waterers are now available for use and have proven efficient, especially under intensive production systems wherein water levels are smartly controlled based on the existing levels of water in the container.

Assessing the feed intake by animals and residuals thereof is essential for economic livestock farming. These parameters are directly related to the economics of livestock farms and they help in reducing feed and labor losses. Mostly, the feed requirements are directly related to the physiological status of the individual animal. Automatic feeder belts are now used in large farms across the globe. The conveyor belts and automated smart drinkers help to maintain a constant supply of feed and water to animals and prevent unnecessary animal traffic at limited places, especially during night hours. It also saves labor with little investment. Generally, automatic weighing scales are used to predict the amount of feed intake by the animals. Camera-based detection systems and biosensors are also used nowadays to supplement the data generated by weighing scales and also assess the time spent by each animal near the feeder. The use of engineering technologies in automatic feeding and watering systems shall also be useful in preventing the wastage of feed and water resources. The identification of individual animals is ensured by using radio-frequency identification (RFID) tags or collars mounted with ID tags or others. The accurate identification of animals along with the use of automation and engineering technologies to assess feed intake helps to group animals of different ages for feeding purposes. Additionally, robots are currently evaluated for their performance with regard to mixing and implementing feeding plans efficiently with reduced labor needs (Aydin, 2017). Chapter 3 of this book further elaborates on various novel animal feeding and watering technologies that will prove useful in making livestock production and management efficient, profitable, and sustainable.

1.3.2 Engineering interventions for optimal care and management of animals

Efficient care and management of animals in a farm needs an interactive environment wherein the data pertaining to their production and behavior need to be collected, analyzed and informed decisions be made for the betterment of farm performance. The data volume is bound to be vast that shall need specialized systems for recording and analyzing the data in effective ways consequent to the increased farm size and higher number of parameters recorded within a population. The real-time data recording of various farm activities shall help farmers/farm managers to make informed decisions while the present infrastructure and future plans relevant to the farm are kept in mind. In the near future, it would be very difficult to reach the optimal production status of the farm without the efficient application of automation along with digital and other engineering technologies. The farm size in developing countries is undergoing a definite paradigm change wherein the number of livestock farmers is reduced while the farm size (the number of animals) maintained by a single owner is increased. Till very recently, rearing animals was taken as a subsistence activity wherein fewer animals were maintained, mainly for family support in terms of food products and additional income, if any. However, the animal husbandry sector is gradually changing to an intensive enterprise in the current era (Aydin, 2017). With increased farm size, the workload gets increased which stresses the importance of informed decisions being taken at critical junctures. Real-time data recording shall also help in improving the quantity as well as the quality of data on various aspects of animals and overall farm management. Better monitoring and decision-making shall, in turn, help in processing the collected data using advanced algorithms to gain maximum insights into animals’ performance and farm management. With real-time data collection and monitoring, fast and efficient solutions to farming problems can be introduced. Continuous monitoring of animals on a farm is also destined to provide early indications about the health and various pathophysiological states. Early estrus detection shall improve the reproduction performance of animals on a farm. Similarly, early disease detection, based on the recording of clinical signs, shall help in the treatment and planning of other aspects of therapeutic and control measures on a farm. Chapter 6 of this book further elaborates on the bioengineering practices that are highly relevant to efficient livestock production.

The utmost need is felt to change the management practices in animal rearing and implement advanced technologies with engineering applications in line with changing agro-climatic scenarios. Automated feeding systems and milking robots are being increasingly used, especially in developing countries. Additionally, conveyor belts are used for easier and more efficient procedures including feed and manure management in livestock and egg collection in poultry farms. In the near future, it would be essential to assess the performance of animals along with their stress levels, behavior, and welfare closely. Engineering applications in livestock will be useful to monitor large populations for health and welfare and anticipate issues with respect to animal health and physiology at earlier stages so that effective preventive measures are taken and economic losses are prevented. Detection of obnoxious behavior of animals or vocalization signs may indicate future problems. Generalized disease signs are often related to changes in animals’ behavior and increased body temperature while respiratory problems are indicated through abnormal respiratory sounds including vocalization and coughing. Stress and diseased states can be detected 4–6 days earlier with biosensors when compared to traditional methods (Koltes et al., 2018). Inflammatory biomarkers can even be assessed using biosensors which may, in turn, be invasive or non-invasive types. Early detection of future problems that are likely to be encountered on an animal or farm basis shall prove helpful to implement corrective actions and prevent critical failures. It will also be helpful to farm owners and managers to be proactive in their approach and provide optimal attention to individual animals without using much of their time and effort. The use of biosensors shall lead to accurate estimation of physiological parameters as animal behavior and physiological parameters have been reported to be affected by the presence of human subjects, be it the owner or the worker measuring the para­meter. One other advantage of using biosensors in livestock production is that the owner/manager does not need to assess the animals continuously and human-animal contact is reduced. The owner/manager may choose a flexible time slot to assess the activity of animals using data from different biosensors.

1.3.2.1 Engineering applications for better selection and housing of animals

The field of breeding and genetics has made tremendous progress over the last few decades. The genetic resource base of animals is diverse with scope for characterization and documentation of more breeds in near future. Genomic selection has penetrated different aspects of animal breeding along with the identification of markers responsible for specific traits. In near future, only genomic information will be used to predict the genetic worth and the performance of animals in specific environments with minimal to no use of pedigree or phenotype information. Engineering techniques find application in the detection of expression products, biomarkers, gene products, and endocrine signals in different body organs and fluids. Predicting the performance of animals at early ages with considerable accuracy can prove highly useful to farmers, scientists, and other stakeholders.

Better housing of livestock is required for increased welfare and production performance of animals. With changing agro-climatic trends coupled with global warming, it is expected that the animals will require efficient housing ensuring adequate protection from extremes of temperature and precipitation with optimal use of resources and minimal investment. Understanding of scientific and engineering principles will be required to design animal houses with adequate facilities keeping in mind the current and predicted futuristic changes in local and global climatic conditions including temperature and precipitation. Minimal recommended (covered and open) space must be provided to rear animals. However, with shrinking land resources, engineering concepts have a big role in the near future to rear an increased number of animals within restricted small space. Innovative housing designs are required to house animals keeping in view the changing climatic trends. The housing material should be durable, economical and in line with the changes in precipitation and local climatic conditions. Housing design is also related to manure management and waste disposal from the farm. Manure nitrogen and its conversion into aerosols can be better managed with optimal housing of livestock. Planning housing of animals along with the construction of waste management units shall be helpful to prevent Nitrogen losses in terms of emission of ammonia and greenhouse gases, leaching of nitrogen compounds into soil and loss of other elements. On the other hand, pressure plates and pressure-detection mats are useful to detect the weight bearing of limbs and foot pads and affections related to the locomotion of animals reared under such systems. The evenness of foot-pad pressure distribution is important for the prevention of stress in animals. Unbalanced weight bearing can be problematic to animals affecting their production, health and welfare. Chapter 2 elaborates on different aspects of engineering applications in livestock housing along with recent advancements in this field.

Modern farms have also adopted mechanization to maintain optimal environmental conditions within the animal shed or overall farm. This is particularly applicable in maintaining elite farms with high-quality germplasm involving its dissemination. In some species, especially swine, the usage of in-house environmental conditioning systems is being adopted increasingly. It involves the maintenance of environmental factors including temperature and humidity, besides helping in the effective removal of dust and harmful gases. This type of environmental system is also useful for the maintenance and propagation of specific-pathogen-free laboratory animals.

Overall, waste management in livestock farms is aimed to reduce the wastage at the source itself or to manage the different types of waste generated via recycling or effective disposal. Various methods are currently available to reduce the carbon and water footprints of livestock production. These efforts are aimed to prevent the degradation of soil, water and other resources. Different ways are currently available to assess the resource degradation ability of waste products from farms and reduce the levels before their release into the environment. Engineering applications are highly relevant to waste management systems that may be useful for effective waste management and recycling in modern animal farms. The concepts of engineering will help in designing the different components of waste management facilities in animal farms including ponds, storage tanks, channels, etc. Different factors including feeding, thickness of bedding material, stocking density of the animals, water intake, and overall footprints should be taken into consideration during the design of manure management systems. Concurrently, species under consideration, feed characteristics local climatic factors, and ventilation within the farm should also be considered. Chapter 10 of this book further elaborates on various basic and novel aspects of engineering applications in animal waste management from livestock farms. Livestock is considered a source of greenhouse gases as well as their victim. Climate change and global warming are destined to affect feed and fodder availability, water availability, the pattern of livestock diseases, and finally production and reproduction performance of animals. It contributes around 7.1 giga-tons of CO2 equivalent (CO2eq) which is about 15% of the total anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions of the globe. Better planning and management of methane and nitrogenous wastes from livestock and poultry farms shall be helpful to reduce the effect of greenhouse gases on the environment. The methane and nitrogenous gases generated in livestock and poultry farms need to be efficiently trapped and converted into usable forms for domestic consumption within or outside the farm. Chapter 7 of the book discusses in detail the relevance and various applications of engineering technologies in climate-smart livestock farming systems.

1.3.3 Applications of biosensors in livestock management and production

The application of biosensors is gradually increasing in livestock production and management (Neethirajan, 2017). Overall biosensors possess the potential to help in recording and assessment of animals’ response to various stimuli within or outside the body in terms of changes in its physiology or behavior (Neethirajan et al., 2017). Biometric sensors (pedometers) have long been used for measuring the activity of animals to predict their estrus behavior with appreciable accuracy (Roelofs et al., 2005). Different types of biosensors are useful in livestock production and management which may be invasive or non-invasive in nature, be individualistic or barn/flock-based in approach. Mostly, barn-based biosensors are non-invasive. Non-invasive sensors mainly include the camera-based systems installed either in the barn or feeding/watering system or attached externally to the individual animal so that parameters pertaining to behavior, movement, animal weight, feed and water intake, and residual feed left by animals are recorded. Camera-based observations may identify any obnoxious behavior or disease state related to the locomotor system of animals including lameness. Additionally, microphones and radio-frequency identification (RFID) tags have also been used in recent times to estimate different parameters pertaining to livestock identification, health, and welfare. Sweat bio-monitoring has been used for making observations on the activity of animals (Ferré et al., 2020), especially racing horses which indirectly predicts the overall health status of animals. Recently, heart-rate monitors and face detection technologies based on artificial intelligence and machine learning are starting to gain more attention from livestock researchers and managers. Face detection and related technologies will also be useful to detect the state of pain in animals as the facial expression changes under these states (McLennan and Mahmoud, 2019). Besides, face detection technologies along with camera-based monitoring will be useful to detect aggressive animals (or aggressiveness initiators). The activity sensors can be based on global positioning system (GPS) or micro-electrochemical (MEMS) analyses. On the other hand, invasive sensors are placed inside the body of an individual animal and are useful to bio-monitor different parameters related to internal physiological functioning. The parameters are mainly related to overall body temperature, rumen health, vaginal pressure, or the detection of biomolecules in blood or other fluid systems. The biosensors have also been reported to assess the biochemical and hematological parameters of animals (Ferré et al., 2020). Microfluidic sensors have recently been used for the early detection of ketosis in animals (Neethirajan, 2017). The parameters from invasive biosensors are mostly reliable and objective. On similar lines, thermal infrared (TIR) imaging can be used to assess the changes in body temperature without contacting and restraining the animal.

The data obtained through invasive or non-invasive biosensors is immense and meaningless without effective statistical/bioinformatics analysis. The data, collected from biosensors, is mostly stored in databases from which data can be retrieved in easy ways and analyzed for different purposes. Appropriate algorithms from statistics and bioinformatics should be used for deducing meaningful and biologically relevant insights about animal production and management. Chapter 4 of this book makes further elaborations on the basics and advanced uses of sensor applications in efficient production and profitability from animal husbandry.

Computer-assisted image analysis is currently naïve in animal husbandry; however, it is destined to help in the early detection of pathophysiological states. Thermography is an image-based diagnostic system that is based on heat patterns on the skin surface of different body parts like the head, udder, eye, dewlap, vulva, limbs, etc. Based on the thermal patterns of different body parts, a thermogram is plotted that is assessed for the presence of any abnormal states within animals’ body. Change in heat patterns is one of the cardinal signs of inflammatory states in the body. These changes are detected using thermography and effective interventions may be introduced at the earliest possible time so that disease occurrence is prevented or controlled. This technique is mainly used in the diagnosis of orthopedic disorders in equines, especially those that are involved in racing sports. However, the technique has also been successful in other species including bovines, small ruminants, pigs, and poultry. Chapter 5 makes a detailed presentation on various image processing technologies that are emerging and penetrating gradually into animal husbandry and are destined to convert it into an efficient enterprise with deep applications of modern algorithms related to artificial intelligence and machine learning. Whereas, chapter 8 of this book further elaborates on digital livestock farming technologies and their use in making animal husbandry a profitable sector.

1.3.4 Benefits of mechanization in livestock

Technological interventions introduced in the dairy sector have opened up many opportunities that may help in the economization of livestock sector. Many direct and indirect benefits are expected and realized through the efficient mechanization of different activities in livestock rearing. Mechanized livestock rearing is expected to fine-tune different activities and increase their speed and timeliness. It is also expected to save time for potential use and diversion towards other activities. With mechanization, livestock rearing will emerge as a lucrative career for the current youth. Mechanization is also expected to reduce the incidence of farming-related injuries to farmers and fine-tune the behavior of animals. Mechanization of synchronized activities can also be helpful in their exploitation to the maximum possible extent. Mechanization of different activities is expected to ensure uniform and appropriate distribution of inputs in terms of feed and other ingredients under normal conditions. On the contrary, the differential rates of input application/usage can also be ensured using special settings in mechanized equipment(s). Mechanization of the livestock sector possesses the potential to help in controlling and preventing economically important zoonotic diseases that pose a constant threat to human existence. Several disease-causing pathogens are trans­mitted biologically or mechanically through humans. Mechanized equipment is destined to kill pathogens and/or block their transmission effectively. Chapter 9 of this book elaborates on various facets of advances in the mechanization of livestock farms and the benefits thereof.

1.3.5 Livestock mechanization and sustainable goals

The majority of developed and developing nations have ratified Agenda for Sustainable Development which aims to achieve specific goals by 2030. These goals often require a multidimensional approach for the achievement of specific targets. These targets are mainly aimed at ending poverty, ensuring inclusive economic growth, optimal livelihood, and health conditions, equal access and sustainable use of economic resources, and sustainable use of resource base to withstand shocks of economic, social, or environmental nature. The livestock sector promises to play an important role in the achievement of these goals, being the ready capital source and a shock absorber. It contributes to the livelihood of the poor, especially the rural masses.

Mechanization of the livestock has the potential to attain different sustainable goals including those related to poverty (SDG 1: zero poverty), hunger (SDG 2: zero hunger), health and well-being (SDG 3: good health and well-being), and consumption and production (SDG 12: sustainable consumption and production). Livestock helps in reducing poverty by ensuring ready access to food in terms of production, the ready capital source for livelihood, and support towards optimal education and health. Additionally, livestock supports farmers in terms of physical liquid capital, transport services, draught power and other non-food uses including alternative energy sources. Liquid capital from livestock rearing can be directed for varied purposes, supporting different dimensions of achieving livelihood goals. Additionally, the livestock sector promotes the direct consumption of quality and nutritious animal-source food thus reducing the hunger of rearing families. It also helps in the generation of employment opportunities at rearing and other levels of livestock food chain. Mechanization of livestock operations possesses the potential to improve the productivity of animals and the profitability of farmers thus helping in realizing the sustainability development goals (SDG) (1 and 2). Improved productivity of animals will also help in ensuring a sufficient supply of food products in terms of milk, meat, eggs, and other value-added products. Another dimension of livestock production is its readily digestible nutrient content which shall help in reducing nutrient insecurity, especially in developing and limited-income countries. Livestock products are nutrient-rich, readily digestible and highly palatable. Livestock products are especially rich in essential fatty acids. Protein and micronutrients like vitamin B12, zinc, iron, calcium, etc. are highly beneficial, especially for young children, and pregnant and lactating women.

1.3.6 Adoption of mechanization and engineering technologies in livestock

Advanced technologies and their effective application are aimed to improve the production performance of livestock farms and help in reaching the stages of cost-effectiveness. These technologies are also aimed to improve the monitoring of different livestock farm operations. Animal husbandry practices have continued for a long and have experienced various phases of human civilization. Across different phases, different technical inputs have been integrated into animal rearing. However, certain hindrances limit the penetration of advanced technologies in the livestock sector that include the non-familiarity of farmers, cost-benefit concerns, difficult usage, and bad experiences with regard to the adoption of previous technologies. Most of the livestock farmers in developing nations belong to the category of marginal or landless. The small land holding and diverse nature of production systems in developing countries also contribute to the limited adoption of innovative technologies in livestock farming. Sometimes, farmers have no direct control over the local conditions that limit the adoption of innovative engineering technologies in animal husbandry (Sterk et al., 2013). Other factors for the limited adoption of engineering technologies in animal husbandry include lesser financial support, reduced incentives, and underdeveloped extension services (Adjognon et al., 2017; Davis, 2008; Jenkins and Miklyaev, 2014).

1.4 Conclusions and perspectives

The livestock sector possesses the potential to provide a livelihood to the ever-increasing human population and ensure their nutritional security. The demand for livestock products is increasing continuously against the plateaued resource growth and changing agro-climatic and economic trends, and food habits. Mechanization of various farm operations and application of engineering technologies have started in animal farms with the target to revolutionize the livestock sector, improve the productivity of animals and enhance the profitability of farmers. Engineering applications in different fields of animal husbandry are destined to improve various aspects of animal production, reproduction, health, and welfare. Reduction of drudgery remains the primary goal of the mechanization of livestock farm operations. The gender-specific needs are to be considered to ensure the effective diffusion of engineering technologies in the livestock sector. Automatic sensors find their application in feeding, watering, and various other aspects of management. Real-time data recording using engineering applications will help farmers and farm managers in making informed decisions keeping present infrastructure and plans in mind. Detection of biomarkers with relevance to pathophysiological states can prove useful in improving the various aspects of livestock production. Camera-based biosensors, radio-frequency identification, microphones, face-detection technologies and thermal infrared imaging systems are increasingly being used in modern livestock farms. However, maximizing returns with the help of engineering applications and mechanization of livestock operations shall require efficient planning and meticulous implementation at different