Infectious Diseases

By International Publishing Centre

The anthropology of irresistible illness is the field of applied and fundamental anthropological examination that spotlights the connection among sociocultural, organic, political, monetary, and biological factors engaged with the etiology, pervasiveness, experience, influence, social grasping, counteraction, and treatment of irresistible sicknesses.

The main zeroed anthropological work on irresistible sickness began inside the post-World War II time of 1950, in another age, described by means of global improvement intended to help considerably less created worldwide areas to get Western/Japanese phases of mechanical and metro improvement.

Biocultural or biosocial approaches to infectious disease anthropology are at the heart of the emerging field. Each cultural and social aspect in the environmental setting has a significant impact on infectious illness transmission to humans. Biocultural/biosocial approaches to infectious illness begin with the idea that infection always goes beyond biology in that it is the result of interaction on a variety of levels. Biologically, one of those phases is unquestionably present. For infectious disease to occur, pathogenic microorganisms, bacterial and viral pathogens, protozoa, helminths, and other organisms must be present.

Infectious illness transmission has been linked to human behaviour for more than a century. Infectious illness outbreaks are largely determined by human activity.

• Language: English
• Publisher: International Publishing Centre
• Release date: Nov 16, 2023
• ISBN: 9798223479451

International Publishing Centre

            Moumita Bahubalindra spent her childhood at historical place Moyna Garh. She had born in Kolkata. Her Educational qualification are. M.Sc, D.EL.ED., PhD . She has complited Diploma course in Computer from Webel and also complited the " Bachik Sudhakar" Degree in  Recitation. Her subject is anthropology. She is a Teacher, Poet and Journalist. She has written Poems, News, views in the different magazines and Newspapers.  She was Associated  with "Kalantar", " Jago Bangla", "Biswa Bangla", "Ekdin" etc newspapers. She has attended the program of F.M and "Ananya" program of D.D.-7. She has recited poems at 'Sishir Moncho', 'Nandan', "West Bengal Banbla Acadamy", 'MadhuSudan Moncho', 'InduMati Hall' of Jadavpur Univercity. She has published two Books namely " Samuderer Nil Swapna" "ChandraDhanaya". She was awarded with 'Vivekjoyti Samman' from Channel Vision, Sera Samman -2018 from All India Legal Forum of New Delhi, Kisore Kumar Award from Kolkata.    She has got a certificate from Asiatic Society regarding 'Manuscript Reading' and associated with many Social works.  She has own Magazine "The Tadanta News".She has working Experience from West Bengal State Health Projects. 

Book preview

Dr. Moumita Bahubalindra

Edited by

Prof Unus Molla, Paul Harris Fellow (TRF-USA)

CEO-International Medical Centre

Indira Gandhi National Open University

International Publishing Centre

47F/1, Jadavpur Central Road, Kolkata-700032

Mail:[e-mail]

Whats app/Mob:[phone]

Infectious Diseases-An anthropological perspective

Dr Moumita Bahubalindra

First Published  : October-2023

Printed &Published from Kolkata, Wesr  Bengal, INDIA

––––––––

Author have expressed her own views and remarks in this book  based on related source of information and references. International Publishing Centre is not responsible for any views and remarks  expressed  in this book. Author have acknowledged different sources of information .

Cover Design & Layout : Prof  Unus  Molla

Copyright: International Publishing Centre

No part of this journal can be copied, published and reprinted without the prior permission and  approval of International Publishing Centre.All contents of this journal is protected as per  copyright  law.

Address  and  Contact Details of Publisher :

Prof  Unus Molla, CEO

International Publishing Centre

47F/1,Jadavpur Central Road, Kolkata-700032

Mail :[e-mail]

Phone :Whats app/Mob:[phone]

Facebook Group: International Publishing Centre

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF TABLES

PREFACE

The anthropology of irresistible illness is the field of applied and fundamental anthropological examination that spotlights the connection among sociocultural, organic, political, monetary, and biological factors engaged with the etiology, pervasiveness, experience, influence, social grasping, counteraction, and treatment of irresistible sicknesses.

The main zeroed anthropological work on irresistible sickness began inside the post-World War II time of 1950, in another age, described by means of global improvement intended to help considerably less created worldwide areas to get Western/Japanese phases of mechanical and metro improvement.

Biocultural or biosocial approaches to infectious disease anthropology are at the heart of the emerging field. Each cultural and social aspect in the environmental setting has a significant impact on infectious illness transmission to humans. Biocultural/biosocial approaches to infectious illness begin with the idea that infection always goes beyond biology in that it is the result of interaction on a variety of levels. Biologically, one of those phases is unquestionably present. For infectious disease to occur, pathogenic microorganisms, bacterial and viral pathogens, protozoa, helminths, and other organisms must be present.

Infectious illness transmission has been linked to human behaviour for more than a century. Infectious illness outbreaks are largely determined by human activity.

EDITOR’S NOTE

Medical anthropology accounts for the vast bulk of anthropological research on infectious disease. In this field, the focus is on the health of individuals within social and cultural circumstances. Anthropology of infectious illness was pioneered by Marcia In Horn and Peter Brown in their book The Anthropology of Infectious Diseases.

According to Wikipedia, it is "a vast field that stresses the interplay of social, biological, and environmental elements pertaining to the genesis and prevalence of infectious illness.

According to a more comprehensive definition, anthropology of infectious disease is defined as follows: There are both practical and fundamental studies in the topic of archaeology of infectious illness. Biological, geopolitical, economic, and biological factors all come into play in this study. Infectious illness aetiology, prevalence, encounter, effect, shared culture, prophylaxis, and treatment are all influenced by socioeconomic factors.

Following World War II, the 1950s marked the beginning of a new age marked by worldwide development aimed at assisting less developed nations to attain levels of technical and civic development comparable to those of Western and Japanese civilizations. Despite the fact that these projects were portrayed in humanitarian terms, the Western governments behind them had other motivations. In the years after the conclusion of the war and the outbreak of several regional liberation movements in the decades that followed. In addition to this, a great number of countries that had previously been governed as colonies, such as those in Africa and Southeast Asia, were given their independence.

In this book-Infectious Diseases-An anthropological Perspective,the author has explained different thoughtful views based on her researchwork  and references. I hope this book will enrich the knowledge of reasearchers and medical practioners and readers in the world.

Regards

Unus Molla,Pual Harris Fellow (TRF-USA)

CEO-International Medical Centre  ,  CEO-International Publishing Centre

CERTIFICATE OF PHD SUPERVISOR

It is certified that this work entitled "An anthropological Time Scale of infectious diseases: Special references to global pandemic threat in living life, Midnapur district area, West Bengal" is an original research work done by Moumita Bahubalindra under my supervision for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology to be awarded by Shri Jagadishprasad Jhabarmal Tibrewala University, Jhunjhunu, Rajasthan,  India and that the candidate has put the attendance of more than 200 days/ 600 hours with me.

To the best of my knowledge and belief this thesis

Embodies the work of candidate himself.

Has duly been completed.

Fulfils the requirement of the ordinance related to Ph.D. degree of the University.

It is up to the standard in respect of both content and language for being referred to the examiner.

I wish the best in her life.

Dr Imran Khan, Department of Anthropology

Shri Jagadishprasad Jhabarmal Tibrewala University, Jhunjhunu, Rajasthan

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor Prof. Dr. Imran Khan for the continuous support of my Ph.D. study and related research, for his patience, motivation, and immense knowledge. His guidance helped me in all the time of research and writing of this thesis. I could not have imagined having a better advisor and mentor for my Ph.D. study.

Besides my advisor, I would like to thankful Dr. Madhu Gupta, Dr. Swati Desai and Dr. Durga Lal Pareek for their insightful comments and encouragement, but also for the hard questions that incentivize me to widen my research from various perspectives.

Last but not the least; I would like to thank my parents, my brothers and sisters, my friends for supporting me spiritually throughout writing this thesis and my life in general.

I express my heartfelt thanks to Prof Unus Molla –CEO-International Medical Centre and CEO-International Publishing Centre for edititing and publishing my PhD thesis into a book for interested readers around the world.

Dr. Moumita Bahubalindra

DEDICATION

PULAKANANDA BAHUBALINDRA

CHAPTER 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION

1.1.1 Small Worlds Have a Big Impact on Anthropology

Take a deep breath. Swaying gently in air and travel from our nostrils, travel into your snout with each breath. You breathe in via your diaphragm, which contracts and draws the air deep into your chest. When you breathe in, oxygen flows into major holes in our air-filled organs and goes into our vessels, where it is set to provide energy to each organ-cell in our living life. Yes, you're still here! It is the same with the breath you just inhaled. When we breathe, our nostrils pick up millions of tiny particles, including dust, pollen, pollen from flowers, coastal flooding, volcanism, and spores from vegetation. They, as a result, function as a nursery for an abundance of bacteria and viruses. (Nathan Wolfe, microbiologist 2013) a book by Stanford scientist Nathan Wolfe called The Viral Storm. When Global Viral was founded, he was also a co-founder and the author of The Viral Storm. It emphasises the warm connection that exists between our species and a wide range of microscopic creatures (Wolfe 2012). For the most part, we can't perceive it since it's a connection that ‘we still know extremely little about.’ Since the invention of the microscopy some three hundred and fifty years ago, people have had an acute awareness of the existence of germs. Nevertheless, some people have speculated their existence for a long time before that. However, some shapes of microbes, such as viruses, were only discovered a little over a century ago, and Fewer than a few years ago we began recognising how important they are to human health because of their quantity and complexity. We have only just started to appreciate the good impact they play in our natural ecosystems and in people's health.

According to current thinking, all life forms on Earth, even humans, are descended from a group of bacteria known as Archea, which means old ones. Archaea may still be found in some surprising places, such as hydrothermal eruptions on the ocean bottom, which are still active.

"In contrast to other hosts, the model organism is a nutrient-rich, warm, and wet environment that maintains a steady temperature and is continually renewing itself. It should come as no surprise that many bacteria have acquired the capacity to live and multiply in this ideal microenvironment. (Albers et al. 2004)"

Even if our connection with bacteria is founded on mutual admiration, it isn't the only one. That's according to National Geographic, a publication full of pride in humanity's accomplishments in exploring every part of the globe and even venturing into space. To make matters worse, according to Nathan Wolfe, a world of germs lurks behind our globe, and they are frequently in command (2012). Pathogenic bacteria exist; however, they make up just a small percentage of the entire population.

They are responsible for the development of human illnesses or the spread of diseases in other animals that may eventually impact humans. An infectious pathogen is an organism that causes illness. There are a number of infectious pathogens, including certain viruses, bacteria, fungus, and protozoa. The prion disease-causing prions and eukaryotic parasites are also part of this group. Small in stature and very few in number but with an extraordinary impact on human existence and well-being, they must be recognised as such.

All around the globe, infectious diseases are the leading cause of death for both children and teenagers. They really are one of the main risk factors in adults worldwide. They have claimed millions and millions of people's beings through history and continue to be major causes of morbidity and death across the world, particularly in impoverished nations, but even in highly developed industrialised countries like the United States and Europe.

There are three infectious illnesses in the top 10 leading causes of mortality in the world. Approximately 16 % of all deaths in the globe are attributed to them each year. According to the World Health Organization (2011), one person in the world gets infected with the bacteria that causes TB every second, and one person dies as a consequence of the disease every twenty seconds. This harmful bacteria spreads by the air; other pathogenic microorganisms have developed a variety of transmission mechanisms (Albers et al. 2004).

The transmission of diseases such as rabies, with which humans have had to struggle for millennia, is accomplished via the bite wounds of infected animals. Although our study of germs is relatively new, humans have long been aware of this mode of illness transmission: documented descriptions of how to stop the spread of this sickness extend back and over three thousand years and are still in use today.

Year after year, we are, alas, discovering new infectious diseases. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, HIV has been one of the most serious new illnesses. It is possible to tell the difference between a disease and its underlying germs thus far. But in reality, the difference between contamination by a disease and the emergence of an illness is arbitrary in its definition. A condition known as AIDS is referred to as ‘HIV sickness’ rather than ‘HIV infection’ in order to avoid creating an artificial line between infection with HIV and the development of disease.

SARS, swine flu, and avian flu are just a few of the new and returning infectious diseases that have recently gained notoriety. According to anthropologist George Armelagos, certain emerging viral illnesses are so bloodcurdling and weird in their descriptions that they conjure up images of cheesy horror flicks in our minds. For instance, a healthy person who contracts the Ebola virus may, within a matter of days, deteriorate into a bag of teeming tissue with blood and organs fragments pouring from every orifice. This may happen even in otherwise healthy people. After decades of assuming that we will be victorious in the fight against infectious illness,

In the U. S., infectious illnesses claimed the lives of 58 percent more persons in 1992 than they did in 1980 (Armelagos 1997). It has been decades since then, and the burden of infectious illnesses in the United States has only increased. As the Iom has often said (Smolins 2003).

Diseases that were totally unheard in our country only a decade ago – West Nile meningitis and avian influenza pulmonary syndrome are examples of these diseases. Hundreds of individuals in the United States have died as a result of these ailments, but the long-term effects are yet unknown. The importation and transmission of other well-known illnesses, such as measles, multidrug-resistant TB, and even malaria, have occurred inside the United States in the previous ten years.

We're learning more about infectious diseases thanks to new research on the connection between the health and the environment. The proliferation of waterborne and vector-borne infectious pathogens, for example, is a result of global warming, among other factors. As part of this multidimensional approach to syndemics, researchers are looking at pathogenic bacteria not just in isolation, but also in their complicated relationships with other illnesses, including non-infectious diseases and sociocultural and economic factors like poverty. Medical anthropology made significant contributions to the understanding of syndemics. These contributions have spread to other health-related fields in recent years.

The way in which diverse human behaviours contribute direct and indirect to the threat pathogens pose is of particular interest to anthropologists. Humans, for example, are overusing antibiotics, altering the planet's temperature, colonising new areas, establishing new patterns of habitation, and implementing new methods of agricultural production and management. To that end, Wolfe (2012) stresses the importance.

To better understand the complex interplay between ourselves and our bacteria, and their own complex relationships with one another, as well as the complex interplay between them. The microbiome is being seen in the same way that an ecosystem has been viewed for a long time: not as a collection of individual species. A more accurate way to describe it would be as an interconnected system, rather than as an arrangement of distinct species.

To put it another way, infectious illnesses are never solely biological in their genesis, progression, or consequences. Social and cultural structures affect both their identity and their actions. It includes the manner in which people comprehend, organise, and treat one another.

As both biological realities and social constructions, infectious diseases represent both social and biological ties. Infectious diseases are both biological realities and social creations. Ultimately, biology and culture are inextricably intertwined, despite our deeply entrenched tendency of perceiving them as independent and even antagonistic forces. As a result, anthropology is especially well adapted to understanding and generating vital insights into infectious illness and its transmission.

Take, for example, the HIV illness. In the last three decades, biological treatments for this disease have evolved considerably, as we are all aware. It is resulting in remarkable improvements in the health of persons who are affected by the disease. Despite this, three obstinate difficulties persist.

(i) People are frequently detected late in the course of their illness and, as a consequence, do not obtain the maximum benefit from present antiretroviral medications.

(ii) Some individuals decide to discontinue therapy for a variety of reasons.

(iii) Some persons are inconsistent in their current treatment criteria for day basis.

This because? HIV experts note that "despite the fact that a focus on testing and treatment seems essentially biological (Morin et al. 2011). The three problems are influenced by elements such as human behaviour, social systems, and [social structural factors]".

Despite this, many experts and research funds are still focused on understanding the basic factors that cause infectious illnesses. Rather than the aspects in which their onset and spread are influenced by human actions, methods of manufacturing and housing, beliefs and values, governance connection structures, and environmental transitions.

Contagious illnesses have a tremendous impact on humans and mortality, as well as on human communities. Anthropology is increasingly concerned with issues both small and large. Since they have been a key study topic in the medical anthropology subject. This perspective investigates the nature of communicable diseases and the impact they have on our health as a result of our close contact with them. In addition, it has a small but important influence on our physiological, cultural, and social identities, as well as the overall quality of our personal actions. The study of biological and cultural aspects of health, illness, and therapy is becoming more popular in medical anthropology. As well as elements in human health made possible by the environment. A wealth of fresh ideas and research topics are being generated as a result, and they will be critical in the years ahead.

These are some of the most fascinating topics on the cutting edge of infectious disease study:

(i) The human world alters dramatically if we cease thinking of human societies as collections of interconnected people. Do we really want to know that we're part of an intricate web of microbial communities teeming with pathogens and zoonotic viruses that jump from one host species to the next?

(ii) In what ways does it alter our perception of ourselves if we acknowledge that every individual is in reality a colony of biotic interactions?

(iii) We no longer regard health as an individual phenomenon, but rather as a reflection of human social interactions influenced by environmental conditions. How does this alter our conception of health?

(iii) Why do infectious illnesses continue to be the major cause of mortality in underdeveloped countries, despite the fact that medical technology has advanced dramatically in recent years?

(iv) We must ask ourselves why infections constitute the third biggest cause of human death, even in fully advanced and comparably affluent countries with sophisticated and expensive healthcare systems, such as the United States.

(v) Human behaviour and interpretations (such as cultural ideas of plague and social stigma) have a significant role in the spread of contagious diseases, the genesis of emerging infectious diseases, the duration of outbreaks, and the extent of human suffering.

(vi) What role do you think the larger dynamics of globalisation will play in the spread of infectious illnesses and the overall health repercussions of these diseases?

(vii) These questions, as well as others, have led to a better understanding of how social responses to communicable disease are likely to develop through time.

(viii) Is it possible to use anthropological principles to better comprehend the impact of infectious illnesses on human communities?

1.1.2 Eco social Theory: Epidemiologist Nancy Krieger laid the groundwork for this strategy (2007). In order to better comprehend birthrate cash dividends of illness and health inequities, she developed it to define a multi-layered system that blends social and biological reasons with a lively, cultural, and ecological viewpoint Anthropology adds nuance to this evolutionary paradigm by examining humans as a creature that has evolved through constant interaction with other organisms. Ethnographic study should be used to better understand biological and social and biosocial interaction. As the globe becomes increasingly linked in a globalising world, there is an increasing focus on the interplay between local socio-cultural and environmental settings and greater social power and commerce domains.

The anthropological method has shown its value in identifying in the previous several years. HIV/AIDS, AIDS-related respiratory syndromes (such as SARS), TB (including paediatric tuberculosis) and other contagious illnesses are all examined to see how they shape people's lived experiences. The detection and measurement of human activities linked with prevention and rehabilitation, as well as representations in material existence of conflicts and stress areas in social bodies, are all conceivable results. It is feasible, via the study of anthropology, to locate everyday, on-the-ground behaviour within the greater context of social groups and communities. It means taking into account the bigger picture of how activities throughout the world and people in other countries interact with one another. The exploration of linkages that are not easily noticeable but are essential to comprehending the connection between tiny objects and politics is included in its increased scope, which now encompasses an even broader range of topics than before. By discovering the routes that link human bodies, social and cultural systems, and health, we can better examine the financial structures of human civilizations.

This specific contribution of the anthropology perspective to HIV illness to the greater interdisciplinary study of contagious diseases is shown in the following ways: International health initiatives devote a significant amount of time and resources to two areas. There is an emphasis on human rationality and decision-making abilities as a preliminary step for their investigation of risk behaviours.

Individual characteristics such as sexuality, awareness, attitudes, and apparent ability to prevent disease are used to assess whether a person is likely to engage in sexual activities that are considered to be riskier for HIV infection. After that, they look at the ability to construct of whole populations, such as the role that poverty plays in high-risk conduct. The relationship between self freedom and the structure of the health care system. Research into anthropology's study of human culture has been ongoing for decades. That's the dimension that is comprised of social groupings, open relationships, and community organizations and initiatives. The simplistic view of people as rational decision-makers is being challenged by anthropologists (Kippax et al. 2013). These folks understand that people's actions are not caused only by their character traits, choices, or abilities. When it comes to risky behaviour like infecting others, ‘it is always socially loaded with importance, rich in strategic value," and the result of several causes.’

Engagement in community groups is a significant one of these characteristics. These groups may have a significant impact on their identities and values as well as their knowledge, health, and activities. When it comes to public health communications, those who believe that the fundamental function of sex is reproduction do not respond positively to messages urging the use of condoms to prevent HIV transmission. Actions that may be taken in order to prevent or cure certain communicable diseases. They are also mediated by group membership, for reasons that may or may not have anything to do with conceptions of microbiological infection. The creation of part of the interaction to infectious diseases, such as local organization in relation to the HIV pandemic, is similarly influenced by group membership.

1.1.3 Making Use of Theory: As a result of this debate, it is clear that theory is important in the anthropology of infectious illness. Many different theoretical views have been adopted and blended in the work of medical anthropologists who are concerned with health concerns. Environmental medicine and medical ecology are concerned with the manner in which people and society adapt to the challenges and possibilities given by their physical surroundings and the climatic conditions they encounter. This includes the existence of certain infectious pathogens in a given area. People's health is seen in this theoretical model as a multifaceted representation of a group's success in dealing with the challenges it encounters. Included are those that are created in the social environment, as well.

The claim made by anthropologist Edward Green (1999) that indigenous views about illness spreading across the globe are not always the consequence of biomedical impact, but are often founded in far earlier cultural conceptions about body pollution, is an excellent example. Adaptive beliefs, in his view, are those that encourage people to take action to reduce the spread of disease. As an example, if a guy refrains from engaging in sexual relations with a large number of partners or with commercial sex workers in order to protect himself from uncleanliness and spiritual contamination. Even if he is completely ignorant of the presence of germs or viruses, he may lower his risk of contracting pathogenically transmitted illnesses via sexual contact.

To put it another way, theories of pollution-based transmission have evolved throughout time. These beliefs have been demonstrated to reduce the risk of infection. For centuries, these artefacts have been kept alive in a variety of different cultural contexts. More to the point, indigenous ethno - medicinal traditions are not, as some may believe, mysticism, meaningless pseudopsychological psychobabble, or other forms of positively detrimental.

Instead, they are historical helped create that have helped to human survival in a variety of situations, despite the fact that they may include certain activities that are potentially damaging to the individual.

Methods like phenomenology and meaning-centered modalities focus on both the modes of cognition and the way in which people think about and experience disease. How sickness is experienced, understood, and interpreted by people around the globe. According to sociologist Karen Kroeger's (2008) research in Indonesia, AIDS myths are widespread. They are a'somatization' of Indonesian political psychopathy, a symbolic validation of Indonesians' fears of societal disintegration and the erosion of governmental authority.

The term medical emergency anthropology refers to a final theoretical approach on medicine. It is a hypothesis that may be found in epidemiology, which is based on this framework of health. Generally speaking, it's considered to be a manifestation of social relationships. Socioeconomic stratification has a substantial impact on the prevalence and severity of health inequalities and frailty, as well as