Sexually Transmitted Diseases Sourcebook, 7th Ed.

By Omnigraphics

Offers consumer health information about risk factors, symptoms, testing, and treatment of sexually transmitted diseases and related complications, along with facts about prevention strategies. Includes index, glossary of related terms, and other resources.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Omnigraphics
• Release date: Apr 1, 2019
• ISBN: 9780780816923

Book preview

Preface

About This Book

Every year, more than 20 million people in the United States are diagnosed with sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reports that diagnosing, treating, and preventing these potentially life-­threatening STDs is one of the greatest public-health challenges today. For some STDs, such as the easily treatable chlamydia, the rates of reported cases are on the rise, especially among adolescent girls and young women. The diagnosis rates of other STDs, such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), have decreased in recent years due to increased education and prevention efforts. Regardless of prevalence or severity, all STDs have significant health consequences if they are not diagnosed and treated.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases Sourcebook, Seventh Edition offers basic information about sexual health and the screening, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of common sexually transmitted diseases, including chancroid, chlamydia, gonorrhea, herpes, hepatitis, HIV, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), human papillomavirus (HPV), syphilis, and trichomoniasis. It discusses trends in STD rates, developments in STD vaccine research, tips on talking to doctors and sexual partners, a glossary of related terms, and resources for additional help and information.

How to Use This Book

This book is divided into parts and chapters. Parts focus on broad areas of interest. Chapters are devoted to single topics within a part.

Part I: Introduction to Sexually Transmitted Diseases identifies the parts of the male and female reproductive system and discusses trends in STD rates in the United States and worldwide. It also examines the impact of these diseases on women, men, children and teens, and older adults. The part concludes with statistical information on minorities disproportionately affected by STDs and recent STD research findings.

Part II: Types of Sexually Transmitted Diseases identifies the symptoms, diagnoses, and treatments of common types of STDs, including chancroid, chlamydia, donovanosis, gonorrhea, herpes, hepatitis, HPV, lymphogranuloma venereum, syphilis, and trichomoniasis. The part also includes information on how HIV causes AIDS and the disease’s transmission, testing, and treatment, as well as strategies for living with HIV and paying for medical care.

Part III: Complications That May Accompany Sexually Transmitted Disease Infection provides information about infections and syndromes that may develop after sexual contact, such as bacterial vaginosis, cytomegalovirus, yeast infection, intestinal parasites, molluscum contagiosum, sexually transmitted gastrointestinal syndromes, pubic lice, and scabies. The part also provides information about conditions related to STDs that can cause long-term health complications for men and women, including cervicitis, epididymitis, infertility and pregnancy complications, pelvic inflammatory disease, and vaginitis.

Part IV: Sexually Transmitted Diseases Testing and Treatment Concerns offers information about how medical professionals test patients for STDs and addresses common issues associated with STD testing, such as maintaining confidentiality and discussing STDs with healthcare providers. Information about unproven STD treatment products is also included.

Part V: Sexually Transmitted Diseases Risks and Prevention ­discusses sexual behaviors that increase the likelihood of STD transmission, such as choosing high-risk partners and using illegal substances. The part also offers tips on talking to sexual partners and ­adolescents about STDs and addresses the effectiveness of sexual and abstinence education as forms of STD prevention. The part concludes with information about preventing STDs by using safer sex and barrier methods such as condoms, by using medication after a known exposure to STDs, by preventing the transmission of these diseases from a pregnant woman to her child, and by using STD vaccines and microbicides.

Part VI: Living with Sexually Transmitted Diseases discusses about how to have a conversation about HIV status, social stigma associated with HIV, and ways to overcome it. It also deals with STD medication and vaccines, and offers insights on how STD patients can cope physically and mentally.

Part VII: Additional Help and Information provides a glossary of important terms related to sexually transmitted diseases and a directory of organizations that offer information to people with STDs or their sexual partners.

Bibliographic Note

This volume contains documents and excerpts from publications issued by the following U.S. government agencies: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC); Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD); Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center (GARD); National Cancer Institute (NCI); National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID); National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS); National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD); National Institutes of Health (NIH); NIH News in Health; Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (ODPHP); Office of the Surgeon General (OSG); Office on Women’s Health (OWH); U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS); and U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

It may also contain original material produced by Omnigraphics and reviewed by medical consultants.

About the Health Reference Series

The Health Reference Series is designed to provide basic medical information for patients, families, caregivers, and the general public. Each volume takes a particular topic and provides comprehensive coverage. This is especially important for people who may be dealing with a newly diagnosed disease or a chronic disorder in themselves or in a family member. People looking for preventive guidance, information about disease warning signs, medical statistics, and risk factors for health problems will also find answers to their questions in the Health Reference Series. The Series, however, is not intended to serve as a tool for diagnosing illness, in prescribing treatments, or as a substitute for the physician/patient relationship. All people concerned about medical symptoms or the possibility of disease are encouraged to seek professional care from an appropriate healthcare provider.

A Note about Spelling and Style

Health Reference Series editors use Stedman’s Medical Dictionary as an authority for questions related to the spelling of medical terms and the Chicago Manual of Style for questions related to grammatical structures, punctuation, and other editorial concerns. Consistent adherence is not always possible, however, because the individual volumes within the Series include many documents from a wide variety of different producers, and the editor’s primary goal is to present material from each source as accurately as is possible. This sometimes means that information in different chapters or sections may follow other guidelines and alternate spelling authorities. For example, occasionally a copyright holder may require that eponymous terms be shown in possessive forms (Crohn’s disease vs. Crohn disease) or that British spelling norms be retained (leukaemia vs. leukemia).

Medical Review

Omnigraphics contracts with a team of qualified, senior medical professionals who serve as medical consultants for the Health Reference Series. As necessary, medical consultants review reprinted and originally written material for currency and accuracy. Citations including the phrase Reviewed (month, year) indicate material reviewed by this team. Medical consultation services are provided to the Health Reference Series editors by:

Dr. Vijayalakshmi, MBBS, DGO, MD

Dr. Senthil Selvan, MBBS, DCH, MD

Dr. K. Sivanandham, MBBS, DCH, MS (Research), PhD

Our Advisory Board

We would like to thank the following board members for providing initial guidance on the development of this series:

Dr. Lynda Baker, Associate Professor of Library and Information Science, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI

Nancy Bulgarelli, William Beaumont Hospital Library, Royal Oak, MI

Karen Imarisio, Bloomfield Township Public Library, Bloomfield Township, MI

Karen Morgan, Mardigian Library, University of ­ Michigan-Dearborn, Dearborn, MI

Rosemary Orlando, St. Clair Shores Public Library, St. Clair Shores, MI

Health Reference Series Update Policy

The inaugural book in the Health Reference Series was the first edition of Cancer Sourcebook published in 1989. Since then, the Series has been enthusiastically received by librarians and in the medical community. In order to maintain the standard of providing high-quality health information for the layperson the editorial staff at Omnigraphics felt it was necessary to implement a policy of updating volumes when warranted.

Medical researchers have been making tremendous strides, and it is the purpose of the Health Reference Series to stay current with the most recent advances. Each decision to update a volume is made on an individual basis. Some of the considerations include how much new information is available and the feedback we receive from people who use the books. If there is a topic you would like to see added to the update list, or an area of medical concern you feel has not been adequately addressed, please write to:

Managing Editor

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Omnigraphics

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Part One

Introduction to Sexually Transmitted Diseases

Chapter 1

Overview of Sexual Health and the Reproductive System

Chapter Contents

Section 1.1—Overview and Impact

Section 1.2—Life Stages and Determinants

Section 1.3—Facts on Reproductive and Sexual Health

Section 1.4—Recommendations for Better Reproductive and Sexual Health

Section 1.5—Female Reproductive System

Section 1.6—Male Reproductive System

Section 1.1

Overview and Impact

This section includes text excerpted from Reproductive and Sexual Health, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (ODPHP), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), February 11, 2019.

An estimated 19 million new cases of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are diagnosed each year in the United States—almost half of them among young people ages 15 to 24. An estimated 1.1 million Americans are living with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and 1 out of 5 people with HIV do not know they have it. Untreated STDs can lead to serious long-term health consequences, especially for adolescent girls and young women, including reproductive-health problems and infertility, fetal and perinatal-health problems, cancer, and further sexual transmission of HIV.

For many, reproductive and sexual-health services are the entry point into the medical care system. These services improve health and reduce costs by not only covering pregnancy prevention, HIV and STD testing and treatment, and prenatal care, but also by screening for intimate partner violence (IPV) and reproductive cancers, providing substance-abuse treatment referrals, and counseling on nutrition and physical activity. Each year, publicly funded family-planning services help prevent 1.94 million unintended pregnancies, including 400,000 teen pregnancies. For every $1 spent on these services, nearly $4 in Medicaid expenditures for pregnancy-related care is saved.

Improving reproductive and sexual health is crucial to eliminating health disparities, reducing rates of infectious diseases and infertility, and increasing educational attainment, career opportunities, and financial stability.

Health Impact of Reproductive and Sexual Health

Reproductive and sexual health is a key component to the overall health and quality of life (QOL) for both men and women. Reproductive and sexual-health services can:

Prevent unintended pregnancies. Nearly half of all pregnancies are unintended. Risks associated with unintended pregnancy include low birth weight, postpartum depression, delays in receiving prenatal care, and family stress.

Prevent adolescent pregnancies. More than 400,000 teen girls ages 15 to 19 give birth each year in the United States.

Detect health conditions early. Prenatal care can detect gestational diabetes or preeclampsia before it causes problems, and taking prenatal vitamins can prevent birth defects of the brain and spinal cord.

Increase the detection and treatment of STDs. Untreated STDs can lead to serious long-term health consequences, especially for adolescent girls and young women.

Decrease rates of infertility. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that undiagnosed and untreated STDs cause at least 24,000 women in the United States each year to become infertile.

Slow the transmission of HIV through testing and treatment. People living with HIV who receive antiretroviral therapy are 92 percent less likely to transmit HIV to others.

Section 1.2

Life Stages and Determinants

This section includes text excerpted from Reproductive and Sexual Health, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (ODPHP), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), February 11, 2019.

The major function of the reproductive system is to ensure the survival of the species. An individual may live a long, healthy, and happy life without producing offspring, but if the species is to continue, at least some individuals must produce offspring. Within the context of producing offspring, the reproductive system has four functions:

To produce egg and sperm cells

To transport and sustain these cells

To nurture the developing offspring

To produce hormones

These functions are divided between the primary and secondary, or accessory, reproductive organs.

Primary reproductive organs, or gonads—consist of the ovaries and testes that are responsible for producing egg and sperm cells with gametes and hormones. These hormones function in the maturation of the reproductive system, the development of sexual characteristics, and the regulation of the normal physiology of the reproductive system.

All other organs, ducts, and glands in the reproductive system are considered secondary, or accessory, reproductive organs. These structures transport and sustain the gametes and nurture the developing offspring.

Reproductive and Sexual Health across the Life Stages

Reproductive and sexual health is an important part of an individual’s overall health, particularly during childbearing years.

Infants

Babies of mothers who do not get prenatal care are three times more likely to have a low birth weight and five times more likely to die than those born to mothers who do get prenatal care.

Adolescents

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are a risk to adolescents’ health and fertility. Nearly half of new STD infections are among young people age 15 to 24.

Adolescents who become pregnant are much less likely to complete their education. About 50 percent of teen mothers get a high-school diploma by age 22, compared with 90 percent of teen girls who do not give birth. Only 50 percent of teen fathers who have children before age 18 finish high school or get their general education development (GED) by age 22.

Older Adults

People age 50 and over account for decreasing numbers of new human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) diagnoses, and older adults may not consider themselves to be at risk of HIV infection. However, many older adults are sexually active, including those living with HIV, and may have the same HIV risk factors as younger people. Consider the following:

People age 50 and over accounted for 17 percent of the new HIV diagnoses in 2015 in the United States.

45 percent of Americans living with diagnosed HIV are over age 50.

Older women may be especially at risk for HIV infection due to age-related thinning and dryness of vaginal tissue.

Some older adults, compared with those who are younger, may be less knowledgeable about HIV, and therefore, less likely to protect themselves. Many do not perceive of themselves as at risk for HIV, do not use condoms, and are less likely than young people to get tested for HIV or to discuss sexual habits or drug use with their doctor.

Older people in the United States are more likely than younger people to have late-stage HIV infection at the time of diagnosis.

Determinants of Reproductive and Sexual Health

Reproductive and sexual health, particularly the spread of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) including HIV and the prevalence of unintended pregnancy, are determined in part by social, economic, and behavioral factors. Stigma is still a major barrier to people accessing reproductive and sexual-health services. For example, the continued stigma around HIV and its association with men who have sex with men can prevent people from getting tested and knowing their serostatus.

Many other factors affect an individual’s reproductive and sexual health decision-making, including access to medical care, social norms, educational attainment, age, income, geographic location, insurance status, sexual orientation, and dependency on alcohol or other drugs. Addressing these determinants is key to reducing health disparities and improving the health of all Americans.

Section 1.3

Facts on Reproductive and Sexual Health

This section includes text excerpted from Reproductive and Sexual Health, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (ODPHP), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), February 11, 2019.

Where We’ve Been and Where We’re Going

Between 2006 to 2010 and 2011 to 2015, there was no statistically significant change in the percentage of sexually active females aged 15 to 44 years who received reproductive-health services in the past 12 months (78.6% in 2006 to 2010 and 77.8% in 2011 to 2015). From 2011 to 2015, several groups of women had the highest rate of receipt of reproductive-health services in their specific demographic categories, including nonHispanic Black females, those aged 18 to 24 years, those with family incomes 500 percent or more of the poverty threshold, those aged 20 to 44 years with a bachelor’s degree, and those with private health insurance.

From 2010 to 2015, the estimated number of persons aged 13 years and over living with diagnosed or undiagnosed human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) increased approximately 11.6 percent, from 1,006,300 to 1,122,900. During the same period, the proportion of people living with HIV who were aware of their HIV infection increased by 2.9 percent, from 83.1 percent to 85.5 percent. In 2015, several population groups in specific demographic categories had the highest rate of awareness of their HIV infection, including women, the white population, older adults, and female injection-drug users.

Sexually Active Females Who Received Reproductive-Health Services (FP-7.1)

Healthy People 2020 objective FP-7.1 tracks the proportion of sexually active females aged 15 to 44 years who received reproductive-health services in the past 12 months.

HP2020 baseline: 78.6 percent of sexually active females aged 15 to 44 years received reproductive-health services in the past 12 months in 2006 to 2010.

HP2020 target: 86.5 percent, a 10 percent improvement over the baseline.

Among racial/ethnic groups, sexually active nonHispanic Black women aged 15 to 44 years had the best (highest) rate of receipt of reproductive-health services in the past 12 months, 85.7 percent as reported in 2011 to 2015. Rates for women in other racial/ethnic groups were:

76.2 percent among Hispanic or Latinx women; the best group rate was 12.5 percent higher

77.2 percent among nonHispanic White women; the best group rate was 11.1 percent higher

Females (sexually active) aged 18 to 24 years had the highest (best) level of receipt of reproductive-health services in the past 12 months among age groups, 84.9 percent as reported in 2011 to 2015. Rates for women in other age groups were:

71.6 percent among females aged 15 to 17 years; the best group rate was 18.7 percent higher

76.0 percent among females aged 25 to 44 years; the best group rate was 11.8 percent higher

Females (sexually active) aged 15 to 44 years whose family income was at or above 500 percent of the poverty threshold had the highest (best) rate of receipt of reproductive-health services in the past 12 months, 82.5 percent as reported in 2011 to 2015. Rates for women in other income groups were:

74.5 percent for those with incomes under the poverty threshold; the best group rate was 10.7 percent higher

78.3 percent for those with incomes 100 to 199 percent of the poverty threshold; the best group rate was 5.2 percent higher

76.5 percent for those with incomes 200 to 399 percent of the poverty threshold; the best group rate was 7.7 percent higher

82.4 percent for those with incomes 400 to 499 percent of the poverty threshold; not significantly different than the best group rate

Females (sexually active) aged 20 to 44 years with a 4-year college degree had the highest (best) rate of receipt of reproductive-health services in the past 12 months, 83.1 percent as reported in 2011 to 2015. Rates for women in other education groups were:

68.3 percent for those with less than a high-school education; the best group rate was 21.7 percent higher

68.9 percent for those with a high-school education or general educational development (GED); the best group rate was 20.6 percent higher

75.8 percent for those with some college education; the best group rate was 9.6 percent higher

79.5 percent for those with an associate’s degree; not significantly different than the best group rate

79.9 percent for those with an advanced degree; not significantly different than the best group rate

Sexually Active Females Receiving Reproductive-Health Services by Educational Attainment, 2011 to 2015

Figure 1.1. Sexually Active Females Receiving Reproductive-Health Services by Educational Attainment, 2011 to 2015 (Source: National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG), Centers of Disease Control and Prevention/National Center for Health Statistics (CDC/NCHS).)

Females (sexually active) aged 15 to 44 years with private health insurance had the highest (best) rate of receipt of reproductive-health services in the past 12 months, 81.7 percent as reported in 2011 to 2015. Rates for women in other health insurance groups were:

60.9 percent for those with no health insurance; the best group rate was 34.0 percent higher

81.4 percent for those with public-health insurance; not significantly different than the best group rate

Awareness of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection Status (HIV-13)

Healthy People 2020 objective HIV-13 tracks the proportion of persons aged 13 years and over living with HIV who are aware of their HIV infection.

HP2020 baseline: 83.1 percent of persons aged 13 years and over living with HIV were aware of their HIV infection in 2010.

HP2020 target: 90.0 percent, consistent with the National HIV/AIDS Strategy.

Females aged 13 years and over had a higher rate of awareness of their HIV infection than males in 2015 (88.5% versus 84.6%).

Among racial/ethnic groups, white persons aged 13 years and over with HIV had the highest (best) rate of awareness of HIV infection (88.1%) in 2015. This rate was 9.6 percent higher than the lowest rate, which was among Asian persons with HIV (80.4%). The rates for other race/ethnic groups were:

81.3 percent among American Indian and Alaska Native persons; the best group rate was 8.4 percent higher

82.2 among Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander persons; the best group rate percent was 7.2 percent higher

83.5 percent among Hispanic or Latinx persons; the best group rate was 5.5 percent higher

84.9 percent among Black persons

85.6 percent among persons of two or more races

Persons aged 55 years and over with HIV had the highest (best) rate of HIV infection awareness (95.1%) in 2015. This rate was twice the lowest rate, which was among persons aged 13 to 24 years (48.6%). The rates for other age groups were:

71.4 percent among persons aged 25 to 34 years; the best group rate was 33.2 percent higher

85.2 percent among persons aged 35 to 44 years; the best group rate was 11.6 percent higher

91.9 percent among persons aged 45 to 54 years

Section 1.4

Recommendations for Better Reproductive and Sexual Health

This section includes text excerpted from Reproductive and Sexual Health, Office of the Surgeon General (OSG), February 12, 2019.

Healthy reproductive and sexual practices can play a critical role in enabling people to remain healthy and actively contribute to their community. Planning and having a healthy pregnancy is vital to the health of women, infants, and families, and is especially important in preventing teen pregnancy and childbearing, which will help raise educational attainment, increase employment opportunities, and enhance financial stability. Access to quality health services and support for safe practices can improve physical and emotional well-being and reduce teen and unintended pregnancies, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), viral hepatitis, and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs).

Recommendations

Increase use of preconception and prenatal care.

Support reproductive and sexual-health services and support services for pregnant and parenting women.

Provide effective sexual health education, especially for adolescents.

Enhance early detection of HIV, viral hepatitis, and other STIs and improve linkage to care.

What Can State, Tribal, Local, and Territorial Governments Do?

Increase access to comprehensive preconception and prenatal care, especially for low-income and at-risk women.

Strengthen delivery of quality reproductive and sexual-health services (e.g., family planning, HIV/STI testing).

Implement evidence-based practices to prevent teen pregnancy and HIV/STIs and ensure that resources are targeted to communities at highest risk.

Use social marketing, support services, and policies to increase the number of people tested and linked to care for HIV, viral hepatitis, and other STIs.

What Can Businesses and Employers Do?

Provide health coverage and employee assistance programs that include family planning and reproductive-health services.

Provide time off for pregnant employees to access prenatal care.

Implement and enforce policies that address sexual harassment.

What Can Healthcare Systems, Insurers, and Clinicians Do?

Advise patients about factors that affect birth outcomes, such as alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs, poor nutrition, stress, lack of prenatal care, and chronic illness or other medical problems.

Include sexual-health risk assessments as a part of routine care, help patients identify ways to reduce the risk for unintended pregnancy, HIV and other STIs, and provide recommended testing and treatment for HIV and other STIs to patients and their partners when appropriate.

Provide vaccination for hepatitis B virus and human papillomavirus (HPV), as recommended by the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP).

Offer counseling and services to patients regarding the range of contraceptive choices either onsite or through referral consistent with federal, state, and local regulations and laws.

Implement policies and procedures to ensure culturally competent and confidential reproductive and sexual-health services.

What Can Early Learning Centers, Schools, Colleges, and Universities Do?

Support medically accurate, developmentally appropriate, and evidence-based sexual health education.

Support teen parenting programs and assist parents in completing high school, which can promote health for teen parents and children.

Provide students with confidential, affordable reproductive and sexual-health information and services consistent with federal, state, and local regulations and laws.

Implement mentoring or skills-based activities that promote healthy relationships and change social norms about teen dating violence.

What Can Community, Nonprofit, and Faith-Based Organizations Do?

Support pregnant women obtaining prenatal care in the first trimester (e.g., transportation services, patient navigators).

Educate communities, clinicians, pregnant women, and families on how to prevent infant mortality (e.g., nutrition, stress reduction, postpartum and newborn care).

Promote and offer HIV and other STI testing and enhance linkages with reproductive and sexual-health services (e.g., counseling, contraception, HIV/STI testing and treatment).

Provide information and educational tools to both men and women to promote respectful, nonviolent relationships.

Promote teen-pregnancy prevention and positive youth development, support the development of strong communication skills among parents, and provide supervised after-school activities.

What Can Individuals and Families Do?

Eat healthfully, take a daily supplement of folic acid, stay active, stop tobacco use and drinking alcohol, and see their doctor before and during pregnancy.

Discuss their sexual-health history, get tested for HIV and other STIs, and discuss birth control options with potential partners.

Notify their partner if they find out they have HIV or another STI.

Discuss sexual-health concerns with their healthcare provider.

Use recommended and effective prevention methods to prevent HIV and other STIs and reduce the risk for unintended pregnancy.

Communicate with children regarding their knowledge, values, and attitudes related to sexual activity, sexuality, and healthy relationships.

Make efforts to know where their children are and what they’re doing and, make sure they are supervised by adults in the after-school hours.

Section 1.5

Female Reproductive System

This section contains text excerpted from the following sources: Text under the heading Introduction to the Reproductive System is excerpted from Introduction to the Reproductive System, National Cancer Institute (NCI), January 29, 2019; Text under the heading How the Female Reproductive System Works is excerpted from How the Female Reproductive System Works, girlshealth.gov, Office on Women’s Health (OWH), April 15, 2014. Reviewed February 2019; Text under the heading Female Sexual Response and Hormone Control is excerpted from Female Sexual Response and Hormone Control, Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results Program (SEER), National Cancer Institute (NCI), September 7, 2016.

Introduction to the Reproductive System

The major function of the reproductive system is to ensure the survival of the species. An individual may live a long, healthy, and happy life without producing offspring, but if the species is to continue, at least some individuals must produce offspring. Within the context of producing offspring, the reproductive system has four functions:

To produce egg and sperm cells

To transport and sustain these cells

To nurture the developing offspring

To produce hormones

These functions are divided between the primary and secondary, or accessory, reproductive organs.

Primary reproductive organs, or gonads—consist of the ovaries and testes that are responsible for producing egg and sperm cells with gametes and hormones. These hormones function in the maturation of the reproductive system, the development of sexual characteristics, and the regulation of the normal physiology of the reproductive system.

All other organs, ducts, and glands in the reproductive system are considered secondary, or accessory, reproductive organs. These structures transport and sustain the gametes and nurture the developing offspring.

How the Female Reproductive System Works

The female reproductive system is all the parts of your body that help reproduce or have babies. Consider these two fabulous facts:

A female body likely has hundreds and thousands of eggs that could grow into a baby, and they have them from the time they are born.

Right inside each female is a perfect place for those eggs to meet with the sperm and grow into a whole human being!

What’s inside the Female Reproductive System?

The ovaries—two small organs. Before puberty, it’s as if the ovaries are asleep. During puberty, they wake up. The ovaries start making more estrogen and other hormones, which cause body changes. One important body change is that these hormones cause you to start getting your period, which is called menstruating. Once a month, the ovaries release one egg (ovum). This is called ovulation.

The fallopian tubes—connect the ovaries to the uterus. The released egg moves along a fallopian tube.

The uterus—or womb—is where a baby would grow. It takes several days for the egg to get to the uterus. As the egg travels, estrogen makes the lining of the uterus (called the endometrium) thick with blood and fluid. This makes the uterus a good place for a baby to grow. One can become pregnant if a female has sex with a male without birth control and his sperm joins the egg (called fertilization) on its way to the uterus. If the egg doesn’t get fertilized, it will be shed along with the lining of the uterus during the next period (menses). But don’t look for the egg—it’s too small to see! The blood and fluid that leave the body during the period pass through the cervix and vagina.

The cervix—a narrow entryway in between the vagina and uterus. The cervix is flexible so it can expand to let a baby pass through during childbirth.

The vagina—a tube that can grow wider to deliver a baby that has finished growing inside the uterus.

The hymen—covers the opening of the vagina. It is a thin piece of tissue that has one or more holes in it. Sometimes a hymen may be stretched or torn when a female uses a tampon or during a first sexual experience. If it does tear, it may bleed a little bit.

Figure 1.2. External Reproductive System

What’s outside the Vagina?

The external reproductive system. The vulva covers the entrance to the vagina. The vulva has five parts:

Mons pubis: The mons pubis is the mound of tissue and skin above the legs, in the middle. This area becomes covered with hair when a female goes through puberty.

Labia: The labia are the two sets of skin folds (often called lips) on either side of the opening of the vagina. The labia majora are the outer lips, and the labia minora are the inner lips. It is normal for the labia to look different from each other.

Clitoris: The clitoris is a small, sensitive bump at the bottom of the mons pubis that is covered by the labia minora.

Urinary opening: The urinary opening, below the clitoris, is where the urine (pee) leaves the body.

Vaginal opening: The vaginal opening is the entry to the vagina and is found below the urinary opening.

Those are the basics of the female reproductive system.

Female Sexual Response and Hormone Control

The female sexual response includes arousal and orgasm. A woman may become pregnant without having an orgasm. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), estrogen, and progesterone have major roles in regulating the functions of the female reproductive system.

At puberty, when the ovaries and uterus respond to certain stimuli, this causes the hypothalamus to secrete a gonadotropin-releasing hormone. This hormone enters the blood and goes to the anterior pituitary gland, where it stimulates the secretion of FSH and LH. These hormones, in turn, affect the ovaries and uterus and the monthly cycles begin. A woman’s reproductive cycle lasts from menarche to menopause.

Menopause occurs when a woman’s reproductive cycles stop. This period is marked by decreased levels of ovarian hormones and increased levels of pituitary FSH and LH. The changing hormone levels are responsible for the symptoms associated with menopause.

Section 1.6

Male Reproductive System

The Male Reproductive System, © 2016 Omnigraphics. Reviewed February 2019.

Like all living things, human beings reproduce. Reproduction is essential for the survival of a species. Most species have males and females for that purpose, with each sex having its own reproductive system.

What Are the Difference between the Male and Female Reproductive Systems?

There are many differences between male and female reproductive systems. Unlike the human female reproductive system, most of the parts of the male reproductive system are situated outside the body. Where the female reproductive system releases only one egg every month during the menstrual process, the male reproductive system can produce millions of sperm cells in a day. Each system also has a primary function which is unique to the reproduction process. The main function of the male reproductive system is to produce and deliver sperm as well as produce hormones such as testosterone, which is responsible for many of the important physical changes the male goes through during puberty. Testosterone is essential to the male reproductive system because it stimulates the ongoing production of sperm.

Figure 1.3. Male Reproductive System (Source: Male Reproductive System, Centers for Disease and Control Prevention (CDC).)

Function of Male Reproductive System

The external parts of the male reproductive system consist of the penis, scrotum, and testicles.

The internal organs, or accessory glands, include the epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, urethra, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands, and the ejaculatory duct.

External Organs

Penis

The penis is the male organ used during intercourse. It consists of two main parts, the shaft, and the glans. The glans is a cone-shaped structure situated at the end of the penis and is covered by foreskin, which is a thin, loose layer of skin, which is sometimes removed by a medical procedure called circumcision. Circumcision is done for many reasons: for hygiene, social, religious, or cultural reasons. The tip of the penis contains the opening of the urethra, a tube that transports urine and semen. Inside, the penis consists of sponge-like tissues which absorb blood and makes the penis become erect for intercourse.

Scrotum

The scrotum is a bag-like structure that can be found behind the penis. It contains the testicles, which produce sperm, the male gamete, and sex hormones. The scrotum protects the testicles and adjusts the body temperature to ensure the survival of sperm. The scrotum contains special muscles in its wall which helps it to contract and relax according to the body temperature necessary for the proper functioning of the sperm.

Testicles

Also called testes, the testicles are two oval organs inside the scrotum. Testicles produce hormones, including testosterone, and create sperm. The sperms are produced by seminiferous tubules inside the testes.

Accessory Glands

Urethra

The urethra is a long tube that carries urine from the urinary bladder. In boys, it also brings semen out of the body during ejaculation. During sexual intercourse, when the penis becomes erect, urine is blocked and only the semen is allowed to come out of the urethra.

Epididymis

One of the accessory organs of the male reproductive system, the epididymis is found inside the body. Before transporting the sperm to the vas deferens, the epididymis matures the sperm cells.

Vas Deferens

The vas deferens is a long muscular tube connecting the epididymis and the pelvic area. The vas deferens is the duct system that carries semen—the sperm-nourishing fluid—to the urethra.

Other accessory glands of the male reproductive system include the ejaculatory ducts, which empty semen into the urethra; the seminal vesicles responsible for producing the majority of the fluid found in semen; the prostate gland, which produces fluids that nourish and protect the sperm, and the bulbourethral or Cowper’s glands which produce preejaculate to provide lubrication for semen to pass through the urethra.

What Does the Male Reproductive System Do?

All of the organs that make up the male reproductive system are designed to work in harmony to generate and release sperm into the female’s vagina during sexual intercourse. Once released into the vagina, if a healthy sperm meets a mature egg conception can begin. In addition, the male reproductive system produces hormones that play a vital role in ensuring that a boy will develop into a sexually mature man who is capable of reproducing.

References

Dr. David T. Derrer, MD. The Male Reproductive System, WebMD, February 27, 2014.

Male Reproductive System, The Nemours Foundation/KidsHealth, 2015.

Male Reproductive System, PubMed Health Glossary, n.d.

Bulbourethral Glands, Human Anatomy, 2012.

The Male Reproductive System, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 2013.

Chapter 2

Understanding Sexually Transmitted Diseases

Chapter Contents

Section 2.1—What Is a Sexually Transmitted Disease?

Section 2.2—Spreading of Sexually Transmitted