The Two-Headed Deer: Illustrations of the Ramayana in Orissa

By Joanna Williams

India's epic poem, the Ramayana, is a dramatic, ever-evolving tale of a prince and his bride, their adventures and dilemmas, and demons. Joanna Williams studies the art of the Ramayana in Orissa, a region known for its elegantly carved temples. There she researched both literary and visual art works, interviewed artists, and observed them at work. With depth and originality, Williams considers how Indian art tells a story in distinctive ways. Her narratological study takes into account many familiar genres of visual art: illustrated manuscripts, drawings on palm leaf paper, wall paintings, shadow plays, temple sculpture, and painted cloth pata. Included are discussions of pan-Indian versions of the epic, which include film, video, and the comic strip; and those local to Orissa, including rural theater and festivals. Noting that we often treat images designed to be seen in sequence as separate pictures, Williams argues that considering several Ramayana images in sequence reveals their qualities of variety, surprise, and emotional development, promoting an understanding of how the story is told. She discusses the artists' narrative strategies and offers interpretations of how and why artists made their choices. Williams persuasively argues against critics who believe that Indian art, indeed any traditional art, is conventional and lacks individual technique or vision. Her analysis across a variety of genres offers a new model for art historians; at the same time anthropologists, folklorists, and scholars of literature and narratology will find her work of great value.

This title is part of UC Press's Voices Revived program, which commemorates University of California Press's mission to seek out and cultivate the brightest minds and give them voice, reach, and impact. Drawing on a backlist dating to 1893, Voices Revived makes high-quality, peer-reviewed scholarship accessible once again using print-on-demand technology. This title was originally published in 1996.
India's epic poem, the Ramayana, is a dramatic, ever-evolving tale of a prince and his bride, their adventures and dilemmas, and demons. Joanna Williams studies the art of the Ramayana in Orissa, a region known for its elegantly carved temples. There she

• Language: English
• Publisher: University of California Press
• Release date: Dec 22, 2023
• ISBN: 9780520321823

Joanna Williams

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The Two-Headed Deer

CALIFORNIA STUDIES IN THE HISTORY OF ART

Walter Horn, Founding Editor

James Marrow, General Editor

I The Birth of Landscape Painting in China, by Michael Sullivan

II Portraits by Degas, by Jean Sutherland Boggs

III Leonardo da Vinci on Painting: A Lost Book (Libro A), by Carlo Pedretti

IV Images in the Margins of Gothic Manuscripts, by Lilian M. C. Randall

V The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans, by John M. Rosenfield

VI A Century of Dutch Manuscript Illumination, by L. M. J. Delaisse

VII George Caleb Bingham: The Evolution of an Artist, and A Catalogue

Raisonne (two volumes), by E. Maurice Bloch

VIII Claude Lorrain: The Drawings—Catalog and Plates (two volumes), by Marcel Roethlisberger

IX Venetian Painted Ceilings of the Renaissance, by Juergen Schulz

X The Drawings of Edouard Manet, by Alain de Leiris

XI Theories of Modern Art: A Source Book by Artists and Critics, by

Herschel B. Chipp, with contributions by Peter Selz and Joshua C. Taylor

XII After the Hunt: William Harnett and Other American Still Life Painters, 1870-1900, by Alfred Frankenstein

XIII Early Netherlandish Triptychs: A Study in Patronage, by Shirley Neilsen Blum

XIV The Horned Moses in Medieval Art and Thought, by Ruth Mellinkoff

XV Metamorphosis of a Death Symbol: The Transi Tomb in the Late Middle

Ages and the Renaissance, by Kathleen Cohen

XVI Franciabigio, by Susan Regan McKillop

XVII Egon Schiele’s Portraits, by Alessandra Comini

XVIII Manuscript Painting in Paris During the Reign of Saint Louis: A Study of Styles, by Robert Branner

XIX The Plan of St. Gall: A Study of the Architecture and Economy of, and Life in a Paradigmatic Carolingian Monastery (three volumes), by Walter Horn and Ernest Born

XX French Gothic Architecture of the 12th and 13th Centuries, by Jean Bony

XXI The Art of Matthew Paris in the Chronica Majora, by Suzanne Lewis

XXII The Literature of Classical Art: The Painting of the Ancients and A Lexicon of Artists and Their Works According to the Literary Sources, by Franciscus Junius (two volumes), edited by Keith Aldrich, Philipp Fehl, and Raina Fehl

XXIII The Armor of Light: Stained Glass in Western France, 1250-1325, by Meredith Parsons Lillich

XXIV Nineteenth-Century Theories of Art, by Joshua C. Taylor

XXV Corinthian Vase-Painting of the Archaic Period (three volumes), by

D. A. Amyx

XXVI Picasso’s Guernica: History, Transformations, Meanings, by Herschel B. Chipp

XXVII Lovis Corinth, by Horst Uhr

XXVIII The Royal Image: Illustrations of the Grandes Chroniques de France, 1274-1422, by Anne D. Hedeman

XXIX Bronzino’s Chapel of Eleonora in the Palazzo Vecchio, by Janet Cox- Rearick

XXX Mashing the Blow: The Scene of Representation in Late Prehistoric Egyptian Art, by Whitney Davis

XXXI The Forum of Trajan, by James Packer

XXXII Outcasts: Signs of Otherness in Northern European Art of the Late Middle Ages, by Ruth Mellinkoff

XXXIII Giambologna: Narrator of the Catholic Reformation, by Mary Weitzel Gibbons

XXXIV The Two-Headed Deer: Illustrations of the Ramayana in Orissa, by Joanna Williams

DISCOVERY SERIES

I The Devil at Isenheim: Reflections of Popular Belief in Grunewald’s

Altarpiece, by Ruth Mellinkoff

II The Forgotten Hermitage of Skellig Michael, by Walter Horn, Jenny

White Marshall, and Grellan D. Rourke

III The Arnolfini Betrothal: Medieval Marriage and the Enigma of Van Eyck’s

Double Portrait, by Edwin Hall

The Two-Headed Deer

ILLUSTRATIONS OF

THE RAMAYANA IN ORISSA

Ioanna Williams

University of California Press

Berkeley Los Angeles London

The publisher gratefully acknowledges the contribution provided by the Art Book Endowment of the Associates of the University of California Press, which is supported by a major gift from the Ahmanson Foundation.

Published with the assistance of the Getty Grant Program

University of California Press

Berkeley and Los Angeles, California

University of California Press, Ltd.

London, England

© 1996 by

The Regents of the University of California

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Williams, Joanna Gottfried, 1939-

The two-headed deer: illustrations of the Ramayana in Orissa / Joanna Williams.

p. cm.—(California studies in the history of art; 34)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 0-520-08065-3 (alk. paper)

1. Vlmki. Ramayana—Illustrations. 2. Art, Indic—India— Orissa. 3. Narrative art—India—Orissa. I. Title. II. Series. N7307.074W56 1996

704.9'48945922'095413—dc20 95-4978

Printed in the United States of America

CONTENTS

CONTENTS

ILLUSTRATIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A NOTE ON THE USE OF INDIAN TERMS

INTRODUCTION

1 The Story

A RESUME

LITERARY VERSIONS OF THE RAMAYANA IN ORISSA

PERFORMANCES

2 Two Pictorial Traditions

PALM-LEAF BOOKS

PAINTINGS OF THE CHITRAKARAS

3 Orissan Sculpture of Rmyana Themes

SATRUGHNESVARA TEMPLE AT BHUBANESWAR

SVARNAJALESVARA TEMPLE AT BHUBANESWAR

SIMHANATHA TEMPLE

VRH TEMPLE AT CHAURASI

ISOLATED CARVINGS, FROM NARRATIVE TO ICON?

4 The Pictures—Scene by Scene

RISYASRINGA’S SEDUCTION AND DASARATHA’S SACRIFICE

tAdaki, AHALYA, and THE BOATMAN

BHARATA’S VISIT

THE ILLUSORY DEER AND SITA’S ABDUCTION

THE SEVEN TREES AND THE DEATH OF VALIN

HANUMANA IN LANKA

BUILDING THE BRIDGE

PRELUDE TO BATTLE

HANUMANA AND THE MEDICINAL HERBS

THE CONCLUSION

5

SARATHI MADALA PATNAIK’S ADHYATMA RAmAYANAS

SARATHI MADALA PATNAIK’S DURGA AND HANUMANA STUTIS

THE RAMALILA

SATRUGHNAS VAIDEHISA VILASAS

MICHHA PATAJOSHI’S VAIDEHISA VILASAS

FOUR VERSIONS OF THE LAVANYAVATI

THE BRAHMA RAMAYANA

JAGANNATH MAHAPATRAS PAINTED SET

THE PARLAKHEMUNDI PLAYING CARDS

LARGE PATAS

BUGUDA WALL PAINTINGS

6 Why?

WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?

WHAT EXPLAINS THE ARTISTS’ CHOICES?

WAS IT SUCCESSFUL?

APPENDIX 1

Adhyatma Ramayana Illustrations: Sequence from Surpanakha’s Attack to the Death of Valin (Multiple x’s indicate multiple illustrations)

Illustrations of Rmyana in Four Manuscripts of Upendra Bhanja’s Lavanyavati (Number of sides of folio devoted to each scene)

Translation of Lavanyavati, Book 15, Ramayana Episode (Numbers at left indicate verses)

Paintings of Rama Themes in Jagannatha Temple, Puri (As recorded by Sri Purna Chandra Mishra, Puri; see Figure 288)

List of Ramayana Scenes in Patas and Related Sets of Paintings (Boldface numbers are figure references; multiple x’s indicate multiple illustrations)

NOTES

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INDEX

ILLUSTRATIONS

Maps

1. Orissa 2

2. Ganjam District 3

Plates (following page 88)

1. Asureshvar. Danda Jatra. Devotee as Hanumana (1990)

2. Puri. Sahi Jatra. Risyasringa and four princes (1983)

3. Satrughna, Vaidehisa Vilasa (courtesy Jubel Library, Baripada, dated 1833). Tadaki and Rama

4. Satrughna, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Baripada, 1833). Rama hunts the magic deer (detail of Figure 93)

5. Satrughna, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Baripada, 1833). Sita in fire, kidnap of Maya Sita

6. Satrughna, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Baripada, 1833). Rainy season on Mount Malyavan

7. Satrughna, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Baripada, 1833). Battle scene

8. Satrughna, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Baripada, 1833). Ravana and his wives

9. Dispersed Lavanyavati (Jean and Francis Marshall Collection, San Francisco). Bharata’s visit

10. Lavanyavati illustrated by Balabhadra Pathy (National Museum, New Delhi 80.1276). Rainy season on Mount Malyavan, f. 173

11. Buguda, Viranchi Narayana Temple, wall F. Laksmana straightening his arrow

12. Apprentice at work on Ramayana pata in Jagannath Mahapatra’s house, Raghurajpur, 1982 (cf. Figure 289A)

Figures

(Pages given for Figures 1-48, all in Chapter 1.

Other figures follow page 194)

Frontispiece Bisipada Rmall. Magic deer (1983)

1. Round Lavanyavati (courtesy National Museum of Indian Art, New Delhi, no. 72-165/1). Performer begins, Risyasringa brings rain, f. 97r 8

2. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Risyasringa performs sacrifice for Dasaratha, f. 97v 8

3. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Distribution of porridge to queens, f. 97v 8

4. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Birth of Dasaratha’s sons, f. 98r 9

5. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Visvamitra takes Rama and Laksmana, f. 98r 9

6. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Death of Tadaki, Visvamitra’s sacrifice, f. 98v 9

7. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Rama fights the demons Subahu and Mancha, f. 98v 9

8. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Ahalya released from curse, Boatman washes Rama’s feet, f. 99r 10

9. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Rama, at Janaka’s court, bends Siva’s bow, f. 99r 10

10. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Rama and Sita’s marriage, f. 99v 10

11. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Meeting with Paraurma, Preparations

for Rama’s coronation, f. 99v 10

12. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Manthara, Dasaratha and Kaikey, f. 100г 11

13. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Rama’s exile, Chitrakuta Hill, f. 100г 11

14. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Rama shoots the crow, f. lOOv 11

15. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Bharata’s visit to Rama, The heroes confront the demon Viradha, f. lOOv 11

16. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). The sage Atri and his wife, Anasuya, welcome the exiles, f. 101г 12

17. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Surpanakha denosed, Her demon brothers, f. 101г 12

18. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). The demon Trisiras, Magic deer, f. lOlv 13

19. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Sita’s kidnap, Jatayu’s attack,

f. lOlv 13

20. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Sita in Lanka, Rama returns to hut, f. 102r 13

21. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Rama swoons, meets Jatayu, f. 102r 13

22. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). The demon Kabandha with Rama, Laksmana, f. 102v 14

23. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Rama and Saban (tribal woman), Cowherds, f. 102v 14

24. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Rama meets ascetics, f. 103r 15

25. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Rama meets Hanumana, Sugriva, f.lO3r 15

26. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Rama shoots through seven trees, Death of Valin, f. 103v 15

27. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Rama on Mount Malyavan, f. 104r 16

28. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Hanumana goes and returns, f. 104r 16

29. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Building the bridge, Attack on Lanka, f. 104v 17

30. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Garuda rescues Rama and Laksmana from serpent-arrows, f. 105r 17

31. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Death of Kumbhakarna, f. 105r 17

32. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Laksmana wounded, f. 105v 18

33. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Hanumana brings mountain, watched by Bharata, f. 105v 18

34. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Death of Rvaa, f. 106r 18

35. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Sita’s test, f. 106v 19

36. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Coronation of Vibhisana in Lanka, f. 106v 19

37. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Return to Ayodhya, Coronation of Rama there, f. 107r 19

38. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Lavanyavati watches coronation of Rama, f. 107v 20

39. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Lavanyavati watches coronation of Rama, f. 108r 20

40. Round Lavanyavati (NM 72-165/1). Lavanyavati watches performance, f. 108v 21

41. Dasapalla Ramalila. Ravana and Puspaka Vimana (1990) 32

42. Amrapura. Ramalila masks and palm-leaf manuscripts in worship in

Mahavir Temple 33

43. Dasapalla Ramalila. Sabaras dancing (1983) 35

44. Dasapalla Ramalila. Magic deer (1990) 36

45. Puri. Sahi Jatra. Mahiravana (1983) 37

46. Odasa. Ravana Chhaya shadow puppets of hunting the magic deer (1983) 40

47. Sonepur. Lanka Podi. Children with images at night (1985) 41

48. Sonepur. Lanka Podi. Hanumana image on rooftop after festival (1982) 42

49. A brahman reading from a palm-leaf manuscript (Parlakhemundi, 1981)

50. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Adhyatma Ramayana (courtesy Orissa State Museum, dated 1875). Ahalya liberated, f. 8r

51. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Adhyatma Ramayana (OSM, 1875). Magic deer, f. 42v

52. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Adhyatma Ramayana (OSM, 1875). Hanumana in Lanka, f. 75v

53. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Adhyatma Ramayana (OSM, 1875). Hanumana bringing mountain, f. 91 v

54. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Adhyatma Ramayana (OSM, 1875). Ravana and Rama, f. 96v

55. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Adhyatma Ramayana (OSM, 1875). Coronation of Rama, last three folios

56. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Adhyatma Ramayana (courtesy New York Public Library, Spencer Collection, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations, dated 1891). Ahalya, f. 9r

57. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Adhyatma Ramayana (NYPL, 1891). Bharata with Rama’s footprints, f. 33r

58. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Adhyatma Ramayana (NYPL, 1891). Surpanakha before Ravana, f. 41r

59. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Adhyatma Ramayana (NYPL, 1891). Creation of Maya Sita, f. 42r

60. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Adhyatma Ramayana (NYPL, 1891). Magic deer, f. 45r

61. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Adhyatma Ramayana (NYPL, 1891). Seven trees, f. 52v

62. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Adhyatma Ramayana (NYPL, 1891). Jagannatha Temple, f. 80v

63. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Adhyatma Ramayana (NYPL, 1891). Siva shrine at Ramesvaram, f. 81r

64. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Adhyatma Ramayana (NYPL, 1891). Building the bridge, f. 88v

65. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Adhyatma Ramayana (NYPL, 1891). Ravana and Laksmana, f. 92v

66. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Adhyatma Ramayana (NYPL, 1891). Hanumana and Kalanemi, f. 93v

67. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Adhyatma Ramayana (NYPL, 1891). Sita’s test, f. 107v

68. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Adhyatma Ramayana (C. L. Bharany Collection, New Delhi, dated 1891). Magic deer, f. 64v

69. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Adhyatma Ramayana (Bharany Col., 1891). Seven trees, f. 77r

70. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Adhyatma Ramayana (Bharany Col., 1891). Indrajita, serpent-arrow, and Hanumana, f. 104v

71. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Adhyatma Ramayana (Bharany Col., 1891). Building the bridge, f. 118v

72. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Adhyatma Ramayana (courtesy Utkal University Library, dated 1902). Jagannatha, f. lOlv

73. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Adhyatma Ramayana (UUL, 1902). Building the bridge, f. lllv

74. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Adhyatma Ramayana (UUL, 1902). Rama and Ravana, f. 130v

75. Adhyatma Ramayana, anon, (courtesy National Museum, New Delhi, no.

75.536) . Bharata with Rama’s footprints, f. 45r

76. Adhyatma Ramayana (NM 75.536). Magic deer, f. 50r

77. Adhyatma Ramayana (NM 75.536). Seven trees, f. 61r

78. Adhyatma Ramayana, anon. (C. L. Bharany Collection, New Delhi). Bharata with Rama’s footprints, f. 52r

79. Adhyatma Ramayana (Bharany Col.). Three-headed deer as marginalia, f. 95r

80. Adhyatma Ramayana, Uttara Kanda, anon, (private collection, New Delhi).

Rama and Kaladeva, f. 195r

81. Adhyatma Ramayana, Uttara Kanda (pc, ND). Visnu and Laksmi in Vaikuntha, f. 200r

82. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Durga Stuti (courtesy of L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, dated 1899). Magic deer, f. 13r

83. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Durga Stuti (LDI, 1899). Indrajita, serpent-arrow, Rama and Laksmana, f. 16r

84. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Durga Stuti (LDI, 1899). Durga rescues Rama and Laksmana, f. 19r

85. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Hanumana Stuti (LDI, 1899). Hanumana carrying mountain, f. 24r

86. Sarathi Madala Patnaik, Hanumana Stuti (LDI, 1899). Hanumana before

Ravana, f. 30v

87. Ramalila, anon, (courtesy National Museum, New Delhi, no. 75.556).

Ravana fighting Navagunjara, f. 58r

88. Ramalila (NM 75.556). Laksmana meets Rama with body of magic deer,

f. 59v

89. Satrughna, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Jubel Library, Baripada, dated 1833).

Risyasringa and courtesans

90. Satrughna, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Baripada, 1833). Boatman washes Rama’s feet

91. Satrughna, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Baripada, 1833). Rama shoots the crow

92. Satrughna, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Baripada, 1833). Sita in fire, Maya Sita, Ravana as beggar (detail of Plate 5)

93. Satrughna, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Baripada, 1833). Rama and the magic deer

94. Satrughna, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Baripada, 1833). Rama, Laksmana, and the cowherds

95. Satrughna, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Baripada, 1833). Seven trees

96. Satrughna, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Baripada, 1833). Valin and Sugriva fight

97. Satrughna, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Baripada, 1833). Building the bridge

98. Satrughna, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Baripada, 1833). Battle

99. Satrughna, Vaidehisa Vilasa no. 2 (courtesy Museum Rietberg, Zurich, Gift of Alice Boner, RVI 1194). Ahalya liberated

100. Satrughna, Vaidehisa Vilasa no. 2 (private collection, New Delhi). Seven trees

101. Satrughna, Vaidehisa Vilasa no. 2 (courtesy Museum Rietberg, Zurich, Gift of Alice Boner, RVI 1194). Coronation of Rama, ff. 154-156r

102. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (courtesy Shri Mahavir Jain Aradhana Kendra, Koba, dated 1902). Risyasringa brings rains, f. 18r

103. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (MJAK, 1902). Tadaki’s apotheosis,

f. 29r

104. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (MJAK, 1902). Ahalya liberated, f. 32r

105. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (MJAK, 1902). Ahalya with Indra, Gautama’s return, f. 33r

106. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (MJAK, 1902). Rama and Laksmana bind up their hair in exile, f. 69r

107. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (MJAK, 1902). The ocher mark

108. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (MJAK, 1902). Ravana and Maricha, Ravana’s bath

109. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (MJAK, 1902). Sita in fire, Maya Sita, Ravana

110. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (MJAK, 1902). Seven trees

111. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (MJAK, 1902). Chakra bandha

112. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (MJAK, 1902). Hanumana with mountain encounters Bharata, f. 186r

113. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (private collection, New Delhi, dated 1914). Risyasringa brings rains, f. 18r

114. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (pc, ND, 1914). Ahalya liberated, f. 29v

115. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (pc, ND, 1914). Bharata’s visit, f. 69r

116. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (pc, ND, 1914). Magic deer, f. 83v

117. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (pc, ND, 1914). Jatayu attempts to stop

Ravana, f. 84r

118. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (pc, ND, 1914). Meeting with Sabari, f. 90r

119. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (pc, ND, 1914). Seven trees, f. 127r

120. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (pc, ND, 1914). Building the bridge, f. 146r

121. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (pc, ND, 1914). Shooting Ravana’s umbrellas, f. 151r

122. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (pc, ND, 1914). Sita’s test

123. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (pc, ND, 1914). Coronation of Rama, left half, f. 229r

124. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (pc, ND, 1914). Coronation of Rama, right half, f. 229r

125. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (courtesy Asutosh Museum, Calcutta, dated 1926). Risyasringa and the courtesans, f. 26v

126. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Asutosh, 1926). Rains are brought, f. 28r

127. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Asutosh, 1926). Ahalya liberated, f. 47v

128. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Asutosh, 1926). Magic deer appears, f. UOr

129. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Asutosh, 1926). Rama, Laksmana, and the cowherds, f. 118r

130. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Asutosh, 1926). Seven trees, f. 127r

131. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Asutosh, 1926). Valin and Sugriva fight, f. 130v

132. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Asutosh, 1926). Death of Valin, f. 130v

133. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Asutosh, 1926). Tara’s curse, f. 13 Iv

134. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Asutosh, 1926). Hanumana in Lanka, f. 170v

135. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Asutosh, 1926). Consternation in Lanka, f. 170v

136. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Asutosh, 1926). Angada’s embassy, f. 203r

137. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Asutosh, 1926). Hanumana at Kalanemi’s ashram, f. 22 Iv

138. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Asutosh, 1926). Ravana’s corpse, f. 24 Iv

139. Michha Patajoshi, Vaidehisa Vilasa (Asutosh, 1926). Rama and Sita return to Ayodhya, f. 250r

140. Lavanyavati (courtesy National Museum, New Delhi, no. 72.109). King of Sinhala, Coronation of Rama, f. 36v, f. 37v

141. Dispersed Lavanyavati (private collection, United States r). Risyasringa meets and marries Santa

142. Dispersed Lavanyavati (private collection, US v). Dasaratha’s sacrifice

143. Dispersed Lavanyavati (courtesy National Museum, New Delhi, no.

62.616F r). Birth of sons to Dasaratha; Tadaki. Photo National Museum

144. Dispersed Lavanyavati (NM 62.616F v). Rama shoots Subahu, Maricha

145. Dispersed Lavanyavati (NM 62.616C r). Ahalya, Boatman

146. Dispersed Lavanyavati (NM 62.616C v). Rama bends Siva’s bow, marries Sita

147. Dispersed Lavanyavati (Jean and Francis Marshall Collection, San Francisco r). Parasurama, Bharata’s visit

148. Dispersed Lavanyavati (Marshall Col. v). Rama meets Viradha, Atri and Anasy

149. Dispersed Lavanyavati (courtesy National Museum, New Delhi, no. 63.126/

14 r). Sabari, Kidnap

150. Dispersed Lavanyavati (NM 63.126/14 v). Rama, Laksmana, and monkeys

151. Dispersed Lavanyavati (NM 63.126/2 r). Dundubhi’s bone, Seven trees

152. Dispersed Lavanyavati (NM 63.126/2 v). Death of Valin, Mount Malyavan

153. Dispersed Lavanyavati (NM 63.126/16 r). Building the bridge, Ravana in Lanka

154. Dispersed Lavanyavati (NM 63.126/16 v). Rama and Laksmana shot by Indrajita, Hanumana bringing mountain

155. Dispersed Lavanyavati (courtesy Birla Academy of Art and Culture, no.

A246 r). Sita’s test. Photo Birla Academy

156. Dispersed Lavanyavati (Birla Academy A246 v). Lavanyavati watches coronation of Rama. Photo Birla Academy

157. Balabhadra Pathy, Lavanyavati (courtesy National Museum of India, New Delhi, no. 80.1276). Risyasringa and courtesans, f. 138r

158. Balabhadra Pathy, Lavanyavati (NM 80.1276). Tadaki, f. 143v

159. Balabhadra Pathy, Lavanyavati (NM 80.1276). Ahalya liberated, f. 144r

160. Balabhadra Pathy, Lavanyavati (NM 80.1276). Bharata’s party approaches Chitrakuta, f. 151v

161. Balabhadra Pathy, Lavanyavati (NM 80.1276). Bharata worships Rama’s sandals, f. 159v

162. Balabhadra Pathy, Lavanyavati (NM 80.1276). Laksmana denoses Surpanakha, f. 162r

163. Balabhadra Pathy, Lavanyavati (NM 80.1276). Ravana watches Laksmana, Sita, and Rama, f. 165r

164. Balabhadra Pathy, Lavanyavati (NM 80.1276). Rama chases magic deer, f. 165v

165. Balabhadra Pathy, Lavanyavati (NM 80.1276). Rama shoots magic deer, f. 166r

166. Balabhadra Pathy, Lavanyavati (NM 80.1276). Jatayu attempts to stop Ravana, f. 166v

167. Balabhadra Pathy, Lavanyavati (NM 80.1276). Rama, Laksmana, and the cowherds, f. 168r

168. Balabhadra Pathy, Lavanyavati (NM 80.1276). Dundubhi’s bones, Seven trees, f. 169v

169. Balabhadra Pathy, Lavanyavati (NM 80.1276). Valin’s cremation, f. 171r

170. Balabhadra Pathy, Lavanyavati (NM 80.1276). Rains on Mount Malyavan,

f. 173v, left

171. Balabhadra Pathy, Lavanyavati (NM 80.1276). Rains on Mount Malyavan, f. 173v, right

172. Balabhadra Pathy, Lavanyavati (NM 80.1276). Hanumana in Lanka, f. 185r

173. Balabhadra Pathy, Lavanyavati (NM 80.1276). Hanumana in Lanka,

f. 180v

174. Balabhadra Pathy, Lavanyavati (NM 80.1276). Hanumana sets fire to Lanka, f. 200v

175. Raghunath Prusti, Lavanyavati (private collection, Mundamarai). Risyasringa brought to Lomapada, f. 72r

176. Raghunath Prusti, Lavanyavati (pc, M). Risyasringa and Jarata, brought to Ayodhya, sacrifice, birth of Dasaratha’s sons, f. 72v

177. Raghunath Prusti, Lavanyavati (pc, M). Tadaki; Visvamitra’s sacrifice, Rama shoots Maricha, f. 73r

178. Raghunath Prusti, Lavanyavati (pc, M). Ahalya’s liberation, Boatman, Rama bends Siva’s bow, f. 73v

179. Raghunath Prusti, Lavanyavati (pc, M). Rama’s marriage, f. 74r

180. Raghunath Prusti, Lavanyavati (pc, M). Meeting with Paraurma, f. 74v

181. Raghunath Prusti, Lavanyavati (pc, M). Preparations for Rama’s coronation, Manthara and Kaikeyi, f. 75r

182. Raghunath Prusti, Lavanyavati (pc, M). Kaikeyi and Dasaratha, Sita and

Rama; Rama meets Sabaras, f. 75v

183. Raghunath Prusti, Lavanyavati (pc, M). Rama binds up hair, the ocher mark, Bharata’s visit, f. 76r

184. Raghunath Prusti, Lavanyavati (pc, M). Viradha, Atri, and Anastiya, Visvamitra and disciple meet Rama, f. 76v

185. Raghunath Prusti, Lavanyavati (pc, M). Surpanakha denosed, Fight with Khara and Dusana, f. 77r

186. Raghunath Prusti, Lavanyavati (pc, M). The magic deer, f. 77v

187. Raghunath Prusti, Lavanyavati (pc, M). Jatayu attempts to stop Ravana, Kidnap, Rama and Laksmana return with dead deer, f. 78r

188. Raghunath Prusti, Lavanyavati (pc, M). Sita in Lanka, Rama finds empty hut, meets Jatayu, f. 78v

189. Raghunath Prusti, Lavanyavati (courtesy Bharat Kala Bhavan, Banaras, no.

10927). Valin’s death, Rama and vanaras, building the bridge, f. 80r

190. Raghunath Prusti, Lavanyavati (BKB 10927). Ravana’s umbrellas cut, Laksmana and Jambavan, f. 80v

191. Raghunath Prusti, Lavanyavati (BKB 10928). Siege of Lanka, f. 81r

192. Raghunath Prusti, Lavanyavati (BKB 10928). Indrajita in battle, Hanumana brings mountain to Rama, f. 81v

193. Raghunath Prusti, Lavanyavati (private collection, Mundamarai). Performers rewarded, f. 83r

194. Brahma Ramayana (Matha collection). Brahma’s garden, f. 6v

195. Brahma Ramayana. Tadaki, f. 13r

196. Brahma Ramayana. Ahalya (detail), f. 13v

197. Brahma Ramayana. Rama’s marriage, f. 21r

198. Brahma Ramayana. Ramakrida (sport of Rama), f. 46r

199. Brahma Ramayana. Final sacrifice, f. 65 v

200. Buguda, Viranchi Narayana Temple, plan showing placement of Ramayana paintings

201. Buguda mural, wall A, from Sacrifice by Risyasringa to Rama’s exile

202. Buguda mural, wall B. Magic deer, Kidnap, Jatayu, Return to hut, Kabandha, Sabari

203. Buguda mural, wall C. Dundubhi’s bones, Seven trees, Death of Valin

204. Buguda mural, wall D. Bharata’s visit

205. Buguda mural, walls D-E, general view: Bharata’s visit, Rama and monkeys, Ocher mark, Building the bridge

206. Buguda mural, wall E, Ocher mark, Building the bridge

207. Buguda mural, wall G, top. Cutting Ravana’s umbrellas (left)

208. Buguda mural, wall G, top right. Vibhlsana points to Ravana

209. Buguda mural, wall F, bottom. Visvamitra and disciple

210. Buguda mural, wall H, bottom. Garuda

211. Buguda mural, wall H, bottom. Hanumana

212. Buguda mural, wall H, left, top. Battle with Kumbhakarna

213. Buguda mural, wall K. Battle between Ravana and Rama

214. Mural in Gangamata Matha, Puri. Coronation of Rama. Photo: Archaeological Survey of India

215. Mural in Jagannatha Temple, Manikarnika Sahi, Puri. Cutting Ravana’s umbrellas

216. Pata painting (courtesy of Bibliotheque Nationale). Map of Puri, confrontation between Rama and Ravana in upper right. Photo: Bibliotheque Nationale

217. Pata painting (courtesy of British Museum). Map of Puri, confrontation between Rama and Ravana in upper right. Photo: British Museum

218. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1954, unfinished set (artist’s collection). Crossing to Lanka

219. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1954, unfinished set (artist’s col.). Lava and Kusa fight Bharata and Laksmana

220. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1965. Battle between Ravana and Rama

221. Bibhuti Kanungo, 1977. Crossing to Lanka

222. Bibhuti Kanungo, 1977. Battle between Ravana and Rama

223. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83 (author’s collection), no. 1. Risyasringa and the courtesans

224. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 11. Tadaki

225. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 12. Ahalya liberated

226. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 13. The boatman

227. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 22. Bharata’s visit

228. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 23. Dasaratha’s hands receive pinda at Gaya

229. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 24. Surpanakha denosed

230. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 26. The magic deer

231. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 27. The kidnap

232. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 28. Jatayu attempts to stop Ravana

233. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 31. Death of Valin

234. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 41. Hanumana shot by serpent-arrow

235. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 43. Hanumana sets fire to Lanka

236. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 45. Crossing to Lanka

237. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 47. Angada’s embassy

238. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 56. Hanumana with mountain

239. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 57. Mahrvana kidnaps Rama and Laksmana

240. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 58. Mahlravana bows to Durga

241. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 59. Rama worships Durga

242. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 60. Ravana fights Rama

243. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 61. Sita’s test

244. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 62. Coronation of Rama

245. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 66. Sita’s sons shown to Vlmki

246. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 69. Lava and Kusa fight Satrughna

247. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 70. Lava and Kusa fight Bharata and Laksmana

248. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 71. Lava and Kusa fight Rama

249. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 72. Lava and Kusa comfort Sita

250. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 73. Rama holds his sons

251. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 74. Sita rejoins mother earth

252. Jagannath Mahapatra, 1982-83, no. 75. Rama crowns his sons

253. Unfinished Ramayana pata, Danda Sahi, 1983

254. а-d. Bhikari Maharana, 1983. Pata of Rama’s story in seventy-five scenes

255. Banamali Maharana, 1982. Pata of Bharata shooting Hanumana

256. Bhagavata Maharana, 1983. Pata of Bharata’s visit

257. Book cover (courtesy of Orissa State Museum). Coronation of Rama

258. Bhagavata Maharana, wooden box, 1970s. Risyasringa and courtesans

259. Bhagavata Maharana, wooden box, meeting with Parasurama

260. Bhagavata Maharana, wooden box, Bharata’s visit

261. Bhagavata Maharana, wooden box, cutting Ravana’s umbrellas

262. Wall painting, Coronation of Rama, by Panu Maharana, 1950s, Danda

Sahi

263. Sonepur Ramayana playing cards: Indrajita suit, king; Laksmana suit, minister; Sugriva suit, one; Hanumana suit, five

264. Parlakhemundi, playing card (courtesy of Victoria and Albert Museum, London). Rama shoots Khara, Dusana, and Trisiras

265. Parlakhemundi, playing card (V&A). Rama faints at not seeing Sita

266. Parlakhemundi, playing card (V&A). After tying up Hanumana, Indrajita brings him to Ravana

267. Parlakhemundi, playing card (V&A). Hanumana sets fire to Lanka

268. Parlakhemundi, playing card (V&A). Coronation of Rama

269. Jeypore, pata c. 1900 (Orissa State Museum). Marriage of Rama and his brothers

270. Apanna Mahapatra, Chikiti, 1982. Pata. Coronation of Rama

271. Apanna Mahapatra, Chikiti, 1988. Pata. Cutting of Ravana’s umbrellas

272. Satrughnesvara Temple, Bhubaneswar. Dentils. Death of Valin

273. Svarnajalesvara Temple, Bhubaneswar. Plan showing placement of Ramayana reliefs

274. Svarnajalesvara Temple, Bhubaneswar. View of north frieze, 1987

275. Svarnajalesvara Temple, Bhubaneswar. North wall, detail of magic deer episode

276. Svarnajalesvara Temple, Bhubaneswar. West wall, Rama shoots trees, Death of Valin

277. Simhanatha Temple. Plan showing placement of Ramayana reliefs

278. Simhanatha Temple. Frieze over west central niche. Death of Valin

279. Simhanatha Temple. Frieze at top of west wall. Battle for Lanka

280. Varahi Temple, Chaurasi. Plan showing placement of Ramayana reliefs

281. Varahi Temple, Chaurasi. Frieze on east wall of porch. Surpanakha, Magic deer

282. Varahi Temple, Chaurasi. Frieze on north wall of porch. Mancha’s death, Jatayu confronts Ravana and meets Rama, Valin kills Dundubhi, Rama shoots trees, Death of Valin

283. Varahi Temple, Chaurasi. Friezes on south wall of porch: unidentified scenes with monkeys (lower), and (upper) Building of bridge to Lanka(?)

284. Compound of Gauri Temple, Bhubaneswar. Hanumana

285. Somanatha Temple, Vishnupur. Window screen. Rama flanked by monkeys, Laksmana straightening his arrow

286. Dharakot Palace. Wooden window screen. Coronation of Rama

287. Muktesvara Temple, Bhubaneswar. Foliate carving on south wall

288. Puri, Jagannatha Temple. Plan showing placement of Ramayana paintings

289. Narrative patas of Ramayana themes, diagrams

A. Raghurajpur, 21 scenes

B. Danda Sahi, 22 scenes

C. Bhikari Maharana’s pata, 75 scenes

D. Danda Sahi, 107 scenes

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My research on Orissan palm-leaf manuscripts began in 1979 with a Guggenheim Fellowship. In 1982-83, a Senior Research Grant from the American Institute of Indian Studies enabled me to spend a year in the area of Puri, focusing on this project and participating in the life of one of the great Hindu pilgrimage centers. Subsequent shorter visits were part of my work for the Ford Foundation in Delhi from 1984 to 1986. A sabbatical from the University of California at Berkeley made it possible to see the Dasapalla Ramalila in 1990.

I am grateful to established Orissa hands abroad, who were supportive and gave good advice about carrying out research in this part of India: Drs. Hermann Kulke, Eberhard Fischer, Louise Cort, Thomas Donaldson, and Frederique Mar- glin. At home, my son, Dylan, kept me abreast of the Western artistic genre most comparable to my subject, the comic book.

The people of Orissa who helped in my work should all be thought of as my co-authors. Purna Chandra Mishra of Puri deserves the title Independent Scholar rather than Research Assistant, having been indispensable to many foreign researchers over the years. His wife, Suresvari Mishra,