360-Degree Waste Management, Volume 1: Fundamentals, Agricultural and Domestic Waste, and Remediation

By Sanjay J. Dhoble

360 Degree Waste Management, Volume One: Fundamentals, Agricultural and Domestic Waste, and Remediation presents an interdisciplinary approach to understanding various types of agricultural and domestic waste, including their origin, management, recycling, disposal, effects on ecosystems, and social and economic impacts. By applying the concepts of sustainable, affordable and integrated approaches for improvement of waste management, the book confronts social, economic and environmental challenges. Thus, researchers, waste managers and environmental engineers will find critical information for identifying long-term answers to problems of waste management that require complex understanding and analysis.Presenting key concepts in the management of agricultural and domestic or municipal waste, this new volume includes aspects on the microbiology of waste management, advanced treatment processes, environmental impacts, technological developments, the economics of waste management and future implications.

• Provides a critical assessment of the economic, social and environmental challenges associated with solid wastes, highlighting sustainable management approaches
• Describes various factors to be considered when developing waste management strategies, including techniques to reuse, reduce, recycle or recover solid waste and manage other wastes
• Addresses contemporary issues such as the transformation of waste into value-added products
• Presents an interdisciplinary approach to the management of various types of agricultural and domestic waste

• Language: English
• Publisher: Elsevier Science
• Release date: Jun 30, 2023
• ISBN: 9780323910439

Book preview

1

Introduction: fundamentals of waste removal technologies

Nishikant A. Raut¹, Dadasaheb M. Kokare¹, Kirtikumar R. Randive², Bharat A. Bhanvase³ and Sanjay J. Dhoble⁴,    ¹Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India,    ²Department of Geology, Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India,    ³Department of Chemical Engineering, Laxminarayan Institute of Technology, Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India,    ⁴Department of Physics, Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India

Abstract

The overpopulation, affluence and technological development is inextricably linked with the increasing overburden of waste from the production, consumption and disposal of typical items. It causes huge destruction of eco-environment and intensify socioeconomic challenges. By 2050 the global population is anticipated to reach 3539 million people and the corresponding increase of global waste up to 3.40 billion tonnes. Moreover, the global ubiquity of plastic waste is the major threat of marine litter and increasing the threshold and intertwining with global processes. The community awareness, increasing finances, building expertise and investing in infrastructure along with the better management strategies can be crucial for long-term sustainability. Waste modelling, life cycle inventory, strategic legislations and behavioural changes serve as the major steps for balancing the trend of resource scarcity and waste burden. The present review article provides a brief overview of present status and future projections of solid wastes and discusses the strategy of solid waste management.

Keywords

Solid waste; planetary boundaries; waste management

1.1 Introduction

Solid waste is the most acute and pervasive problem in developed as well as developing countries. Overpopulation, opulence and technological growth generates large quantity of solid waste and creates huge devastation of eco-environment. With the growing urbanized world, consumption rate is increasing over the years. A significant rise in the volume of solid waste from work and domestic actions is an unavoidable consequence due to increased consumption. Worldwide, 7–9 billion tonnes of waste have been generated annually [1]. Traditional disposal of waste, such as open dumping and burning, has proven to be detrimental for human health or the environment [2–7]. It confronts social, economic and environmental difficulties, and mandates the development of technical expertise in several disciplines. Health risks, economic and environmental disasters, spillover incidences and pollution are the major negative consequences.

The depletion of nonrenewable resources, rising pollution issues and the demands of future generations are all tapping concerns across all regions. Formulating priority order with a fully integrated strategy, proper waste hierarchy and a series of sustainability practices may effectively scale up the solid waste management (SWM). Nevertheless, in this era of green consumerism, eco-consciousness and environmental optimism are on the rise, and the trend is towards eco-friendly commodities with reduced or zero waste. However, the continuation of existing trends and improvements will not be enough to minimize waste loads on natural systems and attain a circular economy. Institutional role, improved enforcement and/or implementation of legislation and rules, policy reforms, privatization and decentralization, and ultimately, increased public interaction and collaboration systems are among the key interventions for SWM. In addition, rapid emergence, costs and coordination for waste management demands multiple considerations in the decision-making process [8]. A comprehensive strategy that specifies the entire supply chain and tackles waste generation concerns at the earliest viable stages can avoid its production and eliminate management issues effectively. Considering the present scenario, this review provides a more comprehensive view of this issue and foster implementation of SWM systems.

1.2 Different types of solid waste

To provide optimal management system, waste can be categorized in a variety of ways: by physical state (solid, liquid, gaseous), and then within solid waste by: original use (food waste, packaged or frozen food, etc.), by material (paper, plastics, etc.), by physical properties (combustible, degradable, recyclable), by origin (domestic, industrial, agricultural commercial, etc.) or by safety level (nontoxic, toxic) [9]. The different types of solid waste, their sources and materials are described in Table 1–1.

Table 1–1

1.3 Solid waste generation around the world

Worldwide, the average volume of waste generated per person per day is 0.74 kg, although it varies significantly, ranging from 0.11 to 4.54 kg [10]. The global waste production has risen from 635 Mt in 1965 to 1999 Mt in 2015, and is projected to be 3539 Mt by 2050 [11]. Canada produces the most waste (36.1 metric tonnes per capita) in the world. Asia contributes one-third of global waste, with China generating about 0.49 kg of waste per capita per day and India generates about 0.5–0.9 kg waste per capita per day [12]. East Asia and the Pacific is the region that produces the highest municipal solid waste (MSW). China, being the world’s most populated country, is responsible for the majority of worldwide MSW, accounting for more than 15%. However, the United States is the world’s largest per capita MSW generator (generating less than 5% of the world’s population, but contributes about 12% of worldwide MSW) when ‘special waste’ categories are considered (such as E-waste, toxic waste, industrial and agricultural waste). In an average, the per capita MSW generation of Japan is 350 kg; whereas America produces more than double of it (800 kg). The Association of Southeast Asian Nations member states generates 1.14 kg MSW per capita per day; Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, Myanmar, respectively, generates 64, 26.77, 22, 14.66, 12.84, 7.5, 0.84 million tonnes of MSW per year [13]. In Europe, the country which contributes largest per capita waste is Denmark, creating a volume relatively similar to that of America each year. Furthermore, the amount of waste produced in urban Denmark is considerably higher than in rural areas.

1.4 Waste management technologies

1.4.1 Technologies for domestic and municipal waste

The composition of domestic and municipal waste mainly depends on the lifestyle of people generating the waste. Most importantly, it varies according to the season and population density of a region or country. Moreover, there are differences in municipal waste generated in developed and developing countries [14]. The typical methods for waste management derived from domestic and municipal waste include dumping, landfilling, composting, recycling and incineration.

In case of the domestic waste, due to the variety of waste and the variation with region and season, there have been emergence of various management techniques involving processes like sorting, waste utilization and waste minimization. These include usage of colour-coded bins, developing awareness among people regarding reuse and recycle of waste materials and conversion of waste materials into useful products. However, due to large quantity of waste still being generated, there is a large load on the dumping fields as the dumping of waste is the most common way of municipal waste management.

In view of this, several biological methods have been introduced to be implemented at domestic level. These include compositing and anaerobic digestion. These methods utilize bacteria and fungi for decomposition of biodegradable waste into simple nutrients. The microbes use the biodegradable waste as source of food for growing and reproducing. However, these methods are only active for biodegradable waste material. Therefore, another set of methods prevail which are classified as physicochemical methods. These methods include waste treatment depending on changes in temperature, pressure, use of oxidants or reducers. They do not involve living organisms. Physicochemical methods, commonly adopted, are combustion, sterilization, pyrolysis and gasification. Modern combustion processes involve incineration carried out in specially designed chambers having tall stacks. Incineration requires high temperatures, long residence time and efficient mixing of air for combustion [15]. On the other hand, pyrolysis requires no oxygen and is a process that converts organic waste material into gas, oil and char. However, emissions in this process are a major concern affecting the attractiveness of these processes. Thus many traditionally used approaches are still being employed despite of disadvantages. However, newer methods are being constantly developed to ensure environmental friendliness. In view of this, artificial intelligence-based techniques are being developed for SWM [16]. Moreover, artificial intelligence-based smart bins have been employed to classify the solid waste materials [17]. Plasma gasification technique has also been employed to enable conversion of harmful wastes into useful energy as well [18].

1.4.2 Technologies for industrial waste

Solid waste from industries is a common issue in developing countries. However, it is largely recommended to utilize the waste of an industry. Industries that develop most solid waste include chemical, power, fertilizer, food, iron and steel, leather, metal-working, plastics, pulp and paper, rubber, glass, clay, cement and textile. Large-scale industries, those having high market share and responsible for larger society employ waste minimization methods. However, those which have lower market share, mainly cottage, small and medium-scale, do not have proper waste management technologies. Industries mostly utilize natural resources and produce great amounts of solid waste which not only consume energy and water, but also is a burden for land, contribute to atmosphere pollution and increase waste management cost [19]. Creating awareness as well as providing cheaper waste management technologies must be a priority of researchers.

Most concerning solid waste derived from industries is the E-waste, spent chemicals waste, metal waste, etc. E-waste contains harmful materials like plastics, metals, glass and other chemicals. Most of the developed countries have an E-waste recycling protocol [20]. However, in most countries informal electronic waste recycling practices still prevail which are very harmful to the environment and human health [20]. Metals are not only recovered from E-waste, but several industrial processes develop pickling waste which contain considerable amount of metal salts which are recovered by electrical or chemical means. However, these processes become cost-intensive due to requirement of electricity or expensive chemicals.

Several manufacturing industries produce solid by-product while; it is mostly reduced or sold for other purposes most of the solid waste recycling plants produce solid waste as well. For example, a waste tyre pyrolysis plant produces carbon-containing sludge which requires further processing to separate carbon from the oily sticky sludge. This process requires great efforts in terms of technology [21]. Moreover, a paper recycling industry produces paper sludge ash which is generated during de-inking and re-pulping of the paper. This paper sludge ash contains the original mineral pigments used during paper making. Scientists have developed a method to recover calcium carbonate from the waste sludge [22].

Solid waste from most industries is still struggling to find ways out from deteriorating the environment. For example, spent clay deriving from acid-clay treatment in refineries contains huge amount of oil and cannot be reused unless the oil is separated. This clay is mostly dumped in earth. However, recovery of oil and thus the clay shall help reduce the waste and contribute to the economy. Similarly, the ash from thermal power stations is a nuisance in developing countries. Usage of this ash for various other purposes is a hot research topic these days [23,24].

1.4.3 Technologies for medical and institutional waste

Any solid waste deriving from activities like medical diagnosis, treatment, medical research, dental and veterinary care is referred to as medical waste [25]. The medical waste is divided into general, infectious, hazardous and radioactive. Among these, the hazardous waste is of great concern as it can spread diseases and also affect the environment. Most of the medical waste are infectious and contribute towards spreading disease. Common methods of treatment of medical wastes include thermal treatment methods involving incineration, microwave treatment, sterilization employing steam, electro-pyrolysis and chemical methods. Thermal treatment includes heating the waste at high temperatures to kill the bacteria and other pathogens. Similarly, steam sterilization is used to ensure bacteria-free solid material wherein it is heated up to 180°C. At the same time, incineration has also been used as an effective method to manage solid waste derived from medical waste sources. Electro-pyrolysis is a method in which solid waste is pyrolyzed between two electrodes under high potential difference. Another method is the chemical method in which chemicals like hypochlorite solution is used. Hypochlorite can help disinfecting sharps and needles to some extent [26].

Institutional waste consists of waste deriving from commercial/government and educational organizations/institutes. Generation of this kind of waste mainly increases through advancement in science and technology at regions with increasing standard of living. Typical institutional waste consists of organic, inorganic (deriving from canteens/kitchens) and E-waste (deriving from administrative areas). These types of wastes are generally managed by landfilling, composting, pyrolysis and incineration [27]. Institutions comprise people of different classes, religions, age-groups and genders. Thus improper waste management practices may create great chaos and can be harmful to these people as well as people residing nearby. To ensure proper waste management, there is a need to create awareness among people. Awareness in urban areas can be created by use of posters or infographics placed inside the institutions. However, educating common people present at institutions in semiurban and rural areas is a difficult task. To ensure proper waste management, the information regarding the source of the waste and its characteristics must be collected. Also, a strategy on waste management must be developed and implemented. Strategies on reduction and segregation of waste along with that on collection and transportation is very important. Treating such type of wastes using biological treatment methods is very effective [28,29].

1.4.4 Technologies for constructional waste

Construction waste has no widely accepted definition. But we refer construction waste as a solid, basically trash-free substance that is created during the building/demolition of any form of civil structure, including houses, roads and bridges. According to the statistics, over 150 million tonnes of constructional waste were produced in India’s urban areas in 2016; about 50% of this waste was produced in small- to medium-sized cities [30]. It is crucial to understand the right disposal methods for waste generated during building construction. In developing countries, the construction waste is utilized as land filler material or building-based filler material.

There are certain management techniques that can help limit the amount of building trash or constructional waste. The first phase of the project where material control can be used is design, which aims to reduce material waste in that design. There are circumstances where the design specifications and the exact dimensions of the materials vary, resulting in a lot of off-cuts during construction. It is important to establish a good material management plan at every stage of the building process, including design, material procurement, on-site handling and accounting, to reduce waste [31].

1.4.5 Technologies for agricultural waste

Agricultural waste is defined as waste left over after cultivating and processing agricultural products like fruits, vegetables, dairy and grains, as well as meat, poultry and crops. Generally agricultural waste is classified into four types: crop waste (rice husk, wheat straws, sugarcane bagasse), animal waste (animal excreta, dead animals), processing waste (packaging material, fertilizer cans) and hazardous waste (pesticides, insecticides). A yearly production of agricultural waste of roughly 998 million tonnes is estimated. In comparison to total solid waste generated on farms, approximately 80% of it is organic waste. Most farmers dump this waste in pits, allowing the majority of the area free for farming. Also, much of the agricultural waste is used as fodder for animals.

Instead of dumping, the agricultural waste can be utilized to make other valuable products, like animal manures used for making fertilizer, as it contains 19%, 38% and 61% of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium, respectively. They have good implications for agricultural growth and productivity. Second, use of agriculture waste is for synthesis of gas for heating and cooking purposes [32]. Agriculture waste has recently emerged as a low-cost alternative for the adsorption-based effluent treatment of wastewater contaminated with heavy metals [33]. Low-cost agricultural waste includes coconut husk, sawdust, sugarcane bagasse, neem bark and rice husk. The environment friendly and sustainable heterogeneous catalysts that contribute in the cost-effective synthesis of biodiesel are made from rice husk [34]. In addition to rice husk, other agricultural waste products with substantial amounts of silica that can be recovered include sugarcane bagasse and bamboo leaf [34]. Agricultural waste material has also been utilized for sustainable construction material to develop waste-create bricks [35]. Moreover, agricultural waste material has been converted into carbon nanostructures which can be possibly used for various purposes [36].

1.5 Waste generation by 2050

With rapidly growing population, urbanization and changing consumption patterns worldwide, waste production has nearly multiplied several folds over the last 10 years, and it is predicted to increase from 2.2 billion tonnes in 2016 to 2.5 billion tonnes per year in 2025 [10]. In 2016 the cities over the globe produced 2.01 billion tonnes of total waste equating 0.74 kg of waste per capita per day (The World Bank Group, 2019). Most of the world’s waste (about 23%) is generated by East Asia and Pacific region. The Middle East and North Africa region generates waste at about 6%. Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, the Middle East and North Africa give alarming sign of rapidly increasing waste which expected to increase two- to threefold in these regions by 2050. India would create 276,342 tonnes of waste per day (TPD) by 2021, 450,132 TPD by 2031, and 1,195,000 TPD by 2050 [37]. Table 1–2 compares the current status of various waste categories as well as their future trends.

Table 1–2

CAGR, Compound annual growth rate.

1.6 Waste management in countries with developing economies

SWM has a complicated history traced all the way back to prehistoric times. The Ancient Greeks were among the first to use waste management techniques around the 4th century A.D. [8]. At the time, waste management techniques were unsophisticated, with waste just being piled up and hauled to pits outside of settlement, and so had to deal with a slew of challenges, including balancing waste disposal systems with a growing population, unavailability of free field and hygienic concerns [8].

Waste management in developing countries is more impractical than in developed ones; dumping and landfills are the preferred method there for solid waste disposal as these are the most cost-effective choices [41,42]. More than half of waste is dumped openly in sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, the Middle East and North Africa, and this increasing waste will have significant long-term consequences for the environment, health and prosperity and thus need immediate action. In Thailand, over 60% of the solid waste is disposed of by open dumping [43]. Various technical, budgetary, regulatory, economic and social constraints impede the development of effective SWM models. Educating the community, increasing finances, building expertise and investing in infrastructure are all necessary steps in fostering waste management systems in developing countries. The World Bank funding provide support to several SWM initiatives. According to World Bank Group (2019) data, it has invested over $4.7 billion since 2000 in more than 340 waste management in different regions. It aims to analyse practical solutions through consultation on infrastructure development, technical competence, legislative measures and coordinated institutions and awareness systems as well.

1.7 Waste management and socioeconomic and environmental considerations

The challenge of waste management together with lack of collateral have resulted in unrestricted solid waste disposal into open dumps and drainage systems, clogging pipes and creating overflows, deterioration of the environment and public health issues. Some of the constraints identified for SWM include institutional, technical, financial, societal and environmental constraints as shown in Fig. 1–1.

Figure 1–1 Practical constraints for solid waste management.

Several socioeconomic factors would influence recycling practices and readiness to invest for the implementation of recycling activities in waste management initiatives. Currently, 519 Mt of waste is recycled, up from 363 Mt in 2015, and this figure has to rise to 740 Mt by 2030 to alleviate unsustainable waste creation. The integrated approach of economic viability, public support and environmental awareness to accelerate the implementation of innovative technologies for SWM links society, economy and the environment. Fig. 1–2 depicts the socioeconomic and environmental considerations for effective SWM. Nevertheless, considering its environmental consequences on a local, regional and global scale; its influence to humans and thereby potential risks; and its utility in prospective recovery through circular economy entire supply chains, it requires specific assessment [1,10].