Algae and Aquatic Macrophytes in Cities: Bioremediation, Biomass, Biofuels and Bioproducts

By Vimal Chandra Pandey

Algae and Aquatic Macrophytes in Cities: Bioremediation, Biomass, Biofuels and Bioproducts introduces the concept of using the natural ability of plants such as algae and aquatic macrophytes to remediate pollutants from water. The book provides scientists with a green, economical and successful option when tackling rising water pollution. The book's chapters cover a range of areas, including bioremediation, biomass, biofuels and bioproducts during the remediation of polluted water systems. It draws together research from eminent scientists from across the globe and includes case studies to help researchers, students, scientists, stakeholders, policymakers and environmentalists understand and perform their research with greater ease.

• Presents multiple case studies from global perspectives
• Focuses on Bioremediation, Biomass, Biofuels and Bioproducts for water pollution—a new approach
• Provides basic knowledge on how to design, grow and use algae and aquatic macrophytes

• Language: English
• Publisher: Elsevier Science
• Release date: Jul 27, 2022
• ISBN: 9780323859196

Book preview

9780323859196_FC

Algae and Aquatic Macrophytes in Cities

Bioremediation, Biomass, Biofuels and Bioproducts

First Edition

Vimal Chandra Pandey

Department of Environmental Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Contributors

About the Editor

Foreword

Preface

Acknowledgments

Section I: Aquatic pollution and bioremediation

Chapter 1: Cities’ water pollution—Challenges and controls

Abstract

1: Introduction

2: Water pollution

3: Categories of water pollution

4: Impact of water pollution

5: Socio-economic and environmental challenges

6: Water pollution control

7: Water quality and UN-sustainable development goals

8: Law, policies, and management action

9: Conclusion

References

Chapter 2: Aquatic pollution and wastewater treatment system

Abstract

Acknowledgment

1: Introduction

2: Bibliometric survey in SCOPUS database

3: Sources of wastewater

4: Pollution in aquatic species

5: Wastewater treatment technologies

6: Conclusions and recommendations

References

Chapter 3: Integrated phytoremediation approaches for abatement of aquatic pollution and element recovery

Abstract

1: Introduction

2: Aquatic pollution and pollutants

3: Phytoremediation

4: Pollutant removal mechanism by aquatic plants

5: Application of macrophytes for the aquatic pollution abatement

6: Application of algal technologies for aquatic pollution abatement

7: Major geo-environmental factors affecting phytoremediation

8: Integrating phytoremediation with energy and element recovery

9: The future prospect of integrated phytoremediation

10: Conclusion

References

Chapter 4: Algae-based low-cost strategy for wastewater treatment

Abstract

Acknowledgments

1: Introduction

2: Toxic metal ions as pollutants in wastewater

3: Biosorption as a method of heavy metal ions removal from wastewater

4: Macroalgae as a biosorbent used in wastewater treatment

5: Utilization of the metal-loaded biomass

6: Conclusions

References

Chapter 5: Aquatic macrophytes and algae in textile wastewater treatment

Abstract

1: Introduction

2: Overview of textile industry

3: Nature and characteristics of textile wastewater

4: Textile wastewater treatment processes

5: Role of algae in textile wastewater treatment

6: Role of aquatic macrophytes in textile wastewater treatment

7: Conclusion

References

Chapter 6: Prospects of carbon capture and carbon sequestration using microalgae and macrophytes

Abstract

1: Introduction

2: Global carbon cycle

3: Necessity of sequestering carbon

4: Carbon sequestration using microalgae

5: Carbon sequestration using macrophytes

6: Direct carbon sequestration in soil using pyrolytic product

7: Future prospects and conclusion

References

Section II: Biomass and biofuels

Chapter 7: Recent advancements in bioflocculation of microalgae for bioenergy applications

Abstract

1: Introduction

2: Bioflocculation

3: Conclusion

References

Chapter 8: Algal biomass pretreatment and developments for better biofuel production

Abstract

Acknowledgments

1: Introduction

2: Challenges to algae-to-biofuel conversion efficiency

3: Algal biomass pretreatment strategies

4: Developments in algal biomass to biofuels

5: Conclusions and perspectives

References

Chapter 9: Opportunities and challenges in algal biofuel

Abstract

Acknowledgment

1: Introduction

2: Economic, environmental, and social challenges and opportunities

3: Conclusions

References

Chapter 10: Biogas production from aquatic biomass

Abstract

1: Introduction

2: Anaerobic digestion process

3: Operational parameters

4: Design of the anaerobic digestion process

5: Current developments for biogas production from aquatic biomass

6: Conclusions

References

Section III: Bioproducts

Chapter 11: Recent advances in the production of nutritional products from algal biomass

Abstract

Acknowledgment

1: Introduction

2: Evolution of algae as food

3: Algal biotechnology focusing on nutraceutical production

4: Nutritional components of algae as food ingredients

5: Processing of algal biomass for nutraceutical development

6: Fortification of algal components into food products and its applications

7: Food regulations for algal food additives

8: Market potential of algal nutraceuticals

9: Challenges in algal nutraceutical product development and commercialization

10: Future prospects

11: Conclusion

References

Web references

Chapter 12: Obtaining commodity chemicals by bio-refining of algal biomass

Abstract

1: Introduction

2: Lipid fraction from microalgal biomass

3: Carbohydrate fraction from microalgal biomass

4: Protein fraction from microalgal biomass

5: Pigments from microalgal biomass

6: Bio-refinery of microalgal biomass

7: Challenges and future prospect of microalgal bio-refinery

8: Conclusion

References

Chapter 13: Seaweed-based fertilizing products

Abstract

Acknowledgments

1: Introduction

2: Seaweeds as a potential raw material for the production of fertilizing products

3: The potential use of seaweeds in sustainable agriculture

4: Seaweed active compounds of agricultural importance

5: Production methods of seaweed-based fertilizing products

6: Seaweeds and fertilizing products according to the Regulation (EU) 2019/1009

7: Literature examples of seaweed fertilizing products

8: Conclusions

References

Chapter 14: Valuable bioproducts from seaweeds obtained by green extraction technologies: Potential health benefits and applications in pharmacological industries

Abstract

Acknowledgment

1: Introduction

2: Bioproducts from seaweeds obtained by green extraction technologies

3: Potential health benefit effects

4: Potential applications in pharmacological industries

5: Conclusions

References

Chapter 15: Nutraceutical and therapeutical potential of Spirulina

Abstract

1: Introduction

2: Morphology

3: Biochemical composition

4: Antiviral activity of Spirulina

5: Anticancer activity of Spirulina

6: Role in diabetes mellitus

7: Immunomodulatory properties

8: Antioxidant properties

9: Antibacterial activities of Spirulina

10: Antiinflammatory properties of Spirulina

11: Radioprotective properties of Spirulina

12: Nutritional supplementation

13: Probiotic effects of Spirulina

14: Eye disease prevented by Spirulina

15: Role of Spirulina in immunity

16: Substitute for animal meat

17: Trace metal and micronutrient supplement of Spirulina

18: Conclusion

References

Index

Copyright

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Contributors

Shahrukh Nawaj Alam     Department of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India

Eduarda Torres Amaral

Environmental Technology Postgraduation Program

Center of Excellence in Oilchemistry and Biotechnology, University of Santa Cruz do Sul, UNISC, Santa Cruz do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Gangadhar Andaluri     Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States

Thilini U. Ariyadasa     Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Moratuwa, Sri Lanka

Arnab Atta

Advanced Technology Development Center

Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal, India

Srijoni Banerjee     Advanced Technology Development Center, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal, India

Lisianne Brittes Benitez

Environmental Technology Postgraduation Program

Center of Excellence in Oilchemistry and Biotechnology, University of Santa Cruz do Sul, UNISC, Santa Cruz do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Nathalie Bourgougnon     Laboratoire de Biotechnologie et Chimie Marines, Université Bretagne Sud, EA3884, UBS, IUEM, Vannes, France

Laura Bulgariu     Gheorghe Asachi University of Iasi, Cristofor Simionescu Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Protection, Department of Environmental Engineering and Management, Iasi, Romania

Rosana de Cassia de Souza Schneider

Environmental Technology Postgraduation Program

Center of Excellence in Oilchemistry and Biotechnology, University of Santa Cruz do Sul, UNISC, Santa Cruz do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Manon Choulot

Laboratoire de Biotechnologie et Chimie Marines, Université Bretagne Sud, EA3884, UBS, IUEM, Vannes

Plant Nutrition Department, Agro Innovation International—Timac Agro, Saint-Malo, France

Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Advanced Material Technologies, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wrocław, Poland

Senem Önen Cinar     Circular Resource Engineering and Management, Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg, Germany

Sagar Daki     Department of Microbiology, Parul Institute of Applied Sciences, Parul University, Vadodara, Gujarat, India

Debabrata Das     Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal, India

Katarzyna Dziergowska     Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Advanced Material Technologies, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wrocław, Poland

Fábio de Farias Neves     Department of Fisheries Engineering, Santa Catarina State University, UDESC, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil

Abhishek Guldhe     Department of Biotechnology, Amity University, Mumbai, India

Sanjay Kumar Gupta     Environmental Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India

P. Hariprasad     Environmental Biotechnology Laboratory, Centre for Rural Development and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India

Jyotsna Kaushal     Center for Water Sciences, Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Rajpura, Punjab, India

Zaira Khalid     Department of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India

Se-Kwon Kim     Department of Marine Sciences & Convergence Engineering, College of Science and Technology, Hanyang University, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea

Arina Kosheleva     Circular Resource Engineering and Management, Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg, Germany

S. Koushalya

Applied Microbiology Laboratory

Environmental Biotechnology Laboratory, Centre for Rural Development and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India

Kerstin Kuchta     Circular Resource Engineering and Management, Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg, Germany

Mehmet Ali Küçüker     Department of Environmental Engineering, İzmir Institute of Technology, İzmir, Turkey

Cécile Le Guillard     Plant Nutrition Department, Agro Innovation International—Timac Agro, Saint-Malo, France

Pooja Mahajan     Center for Water Sciences, Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Rajpura, Punjab, India

Anushree Malik     Applied Microbiology Laboratory, Centre for Rural Development and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India

Carmen Mateescu     National Institute for Research and Development in Electrical Engineering ICPE-CA, Bucharest, Romania

Izabela Michalak     Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Advanced Material Technologies, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wrocław, Poland

Mahmoud Nasr

Environmental Engineering Department, Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology (E-JUST)

Sanitary Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt

Arvind Kumar Nema     Environmental Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India

Vimal Chandra Pandey     Department of Environmental Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

Ratih Pangestuti     Research and Development Division for Marine Bio Industry (BBIL), Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), West Nusa Tenggara, Republic of Indonesia

Shubhangi Parmar     Department of Microbiology, Parul Institute of Applied Sciences, Parul University, Vadodara, Gujarat, India

Vinayak Vandan Pathak     Department of Chemistry, Manav Rachna University, Faridabad, Haryana, India

Idham Sumarto Prathama     Research and Development Division for Marine Bio Industry (BBIL), Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), West Nusa Tenggara, Republic of Indonesia

Yanuariska Putra     Research and Development Division for Marine Bio Industry (BBIL), Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), West Nusa Tenggara, Republic of Indonesia

Rachna

Environmental Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi

Department of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India

Puji Rahmadi     Research Center for Oceanography (P2O), Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Jakarta, Republic of Indonesia

Vanessa Rosana Ribeiro

Environmental Technology Postgraduation Program

Center of Excellence in Oilchemistry and Biotechnology, University of Santa Cruz do Sul, UNISC, Santa Cruz do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Asep Ridwanudin     Research and Development Division for Marine Bio Industry (BBIL), Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), West Nusa Tenggara, Republic of Indonesia

Tiele Medianeira Rizzetti

Environmental Technology Postgraduation Program

Center of Excellence in Oilchemistry and Biotechnology, University of Santa Cruz do Sul, UNISC, Santa Cruz do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Poojhaa Shanmugam     Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

Anupama Shrivastav     Department of Microbiology, Parul Institute of Applied Sciences, Parul University, Vadodara, Gujarat, India

Evi Amelia Siahaan     Research and Development Division for Marine Bio Industry (BBIL), Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), West Nusa Tenggara, Republic of Indonesia

Bhaskar Singh     Department of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India

Rekha Singh     Department of Engineering Systems and Environment, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, United States

Maiara Priscilla de Souza

Environmental Technology Postgraduation Program

Center of Excellence in Oilchemistry and Biotechnology, University of Santa Cruz do Sul, UNISC, Santa Cruz do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

R. Vasantharaja     Environmental Biotechnology Laboratory, Centre for Rural Development and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India

Nils Wieczorek     Circular Resource Engineering and Management, Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg, Germany

About the Editor

Unlabelled Image

Dr. Vimal Chandra Pandey featured in the world’s top 2% scientists curated by Stanford University, United States. Dr. Pandey is a leading researcher in the field of environmental engineering, particularly phytomanagement of polluted sites. His research focuses mainly on the remediation and management of degraded lands, including heavy metal-polluted lands and postindustrial lands polluted with fly ash, red mud, and mine spoil, among others, to regain ecosystem servicesand support a bio-based economy with phytoproducts through affordable green technology such as phytoremediation. His research interests also lie in exploring industrial crop-based phytoremediation to attain bioeconomy security and restoration, adaptive phytoremediation practices, phytoremediation-based biofortification and carbon sequestration, fostering bioremediation for utilizing polluted lands, and attaining UN Sustainable Development Goals. Recently, Dr. Pandey worked as CSIR-Pool Scientist (Senior Research Associate) in the Department of Environmental Science at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He also worked as Consultant at the Council of Science and Technology, Uttar Pradesh; DST-Young Scientist in the Plant Ecology and Environmental Science Division at CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow; and DS Kothari Postdoctoral Fellow at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow. He is the recipient of a number of awards/honors/fellowships and is a member of the National Academy of Sciences, India. Dr. Pandey serves as a subject expert and panel member for the evaluation of research and professional activities in India and abroad for fostering environmental sustainability. He has published more than 100 scientific articles/book chapters in peer-reviewed journals/books. Dr. Pandey is also the author and editor of eight books published by Elsevier, with several more forthcoming. He is Associate Editor of Land Degradation and Development (Wiley); Editor of Restoration Ecology (Wiley); Associate Editor of Environment, Development and Sustainability (Springer); Associate Editor of Ecological Processes (Springer Nature); Academic Editor of PLOS ONE (PLOS); Advisory Board Member of Ambio (Springer); and Editorial Board Member of Environmental Management (Springer) and Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (Springer). He also works/worked as Guest Editor for several reputed journals. Email address: [e-mail], ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2250-6726, Google Scholar: https://scholar.google.co.in/citations?user=B-5sDCoAAAAJ&hl.

Foreword

Cities’ water pollution resulting from uncontrolled use and mismanagement of pollutants such as herbicides, pesticides, plastics, petroleum oils, heavy metals, chemicals, phenolic compounds, and industrial waste is a serious issue across the world. There is a pressing need to develop green technologies based on algae and macrophytes that can be used for removing or reducing these pollutants from polluted water systems in a cost-effective manner. Phytoremediation is one of the cost-effective and eco-friendly ways to remove pollutants from our soil and water systems. A number of plants including algae and aquatic macrophytes have natural ability to remediate pollutants from polluted water. They are being used to treat water, wastewater, industrial waste, and solid waste.

This book covers wide-ranging algae and aquatic macrophytes for the remediation of pollutants from water systems in metropolitan areas. The main idea behind the compilation of this book is to draw together chapters from eminent scientists from across the globe and benefit by their established expertise in phytoremediation using algae and aquatic macrophytes. Currently, there is lack of such a book as a single source that covers a broad spectrum of algae and aquatic macrophyte-based management of cities’ water pollution. Algae and Aquatic Macrophytes in Cities: Bioremediation, Biomass, Biofuels and Bioproducts is a well-timed and up-to-date book to fill this gap.

I congratulate Dr. Vimal Chandra Pandey for bringing out this valuable book published by a renowned publisher: Elsevier. The book comprises 15 chapters covering various aspects of bioremediation and production of biomass, biofuels, and bioproducts. I believe the book will be a valuable asset for researchers, scientists, environmentalists, entrepreneurs, policy makers, and other stakeholders alike.

A.N. Rai, Former Vice-Chancellor, Mizoram University, Aizawl, India, Former Vice-Chancellor, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong, India, Former Director, National Assessment & Accreditation Council (NAAC), Bengaluru, India, Former Member, Scientific Advisory Committee to the Cabinet (SAC-C), Government of India, India, Former Member, Central Advisory Board for Education (CABE), Government of India, India

Preface

Vimal Chandra Pandey

Our society currently faces water pollution, which is one of the serious issues and challenges faced by metropolitan cities worldwide. This problem results from different types of contaminants such as heavy metals, metalloids, chemicals, sewage, radioactive waste, pesticides, herbicides, plastics, petroleum oils, phenolic compounds, and industrial waste, which are introduced into water bodies. These contaminants enter in the body of humans and animals through the food chain of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Consequently, a wide range of diseases such as genetic disorders, infertility, cancer, and blindness occur in our society, in addition to water-borne diseases (i.e., diarrhea and gastrointestinal illness). The phytoremediation technique is a sustainable and effective tool to remove contaminants from aquatic environments compared to other methods. Thus, it is urgent to explore the use of algae and aquatic macrophytes on a large scale for the remediation of polluted water systems, because both plants have the natural ability to decrease contaminants from water bodies.

Algae and Aquatic Macrophytes in Cities: Bioremediation, Biomass, Biofuels and Bioproducts covers key applications of algae and aquatic macrophytes for the bioremediation of polluted water bodies and how to integrate the production of biomass, biofuels, and bioproducts. This book offers wide geographical areas to draw chapters from eminent scientists, benefited by their established expertise in algae and aquatic macrophyte-based phytoremediation. This book will be useful for researchers, students, scientists, professors, practitioners, environmentalists, entrepreneurs, policy makers, and other stakeholders alike to understand and perform their research with greater ease.

This book is well-timed and updated information that fills a significant market opening for algae and aquatic macrophyte-mediated phytoremediation with economic returns, which is available to a wide-ranging audience. The book comprises 15 chapters that cover a range of areas, including various aspects of bioremediation as well as the production of biomass, biofuels, and bioproducts through algae and aquatic macrophytes during the remediation of polluted water systems. This book provides an ideal roadmap for algae-macrophytes researchers and engineers who wish to combine bioremediation and bioeconomy practices toward ecological and socioeconomic sustainability.

Acknowledgments

I sincerely thank Louisa Hutchins (Senior Acquisitions Editor), Aleksandra Packowska (Editorial Project Manager), Sruthi Satheesh (Production Project Manager), and Swapna Praveen (Senior Copyrights Coordinator) from Elsevier for their excellent support, guidance, and coordination during the production of this fascinating project. I thank the contributors from all over the world for their excellent chapter contributions. I also thank all the reviewers for their valuable time and expertise in reviewing the chapters of this book. I am greatly thankful to Prof. A.N. Rai, former Vice-Chancellor of Mizoram University and North-Eastern Hill University, India, for writing the Foreword for the book on such short notice. Finally, I thank my family for their endless support and encouragement.

Section I

Aquatic pollution and bioremediation

Chapter 1: Cities’ water pollution—Challenges and controls

Rekha Singha; Gangadhar Andalurib; Vimal Chandra Pandeyc,⁎    a Department of Engineering Systems and Environment, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, United States

b Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States

c Department of Environmental Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

⁎ Corresponding Author.

Abstract

Water pollution is one of the challenges for society, especially for industries working in the water sector. With rapid urbanization, population, and industrial growth, there is a serious threat to water management. New chemicals are released every day, and they are making their way into the water, putting more challenges on water-reuse technologies. Cities occupy less than 3% of the Earth's surface, but there is a significant population density (more than 50% of the global population), industries, and energy use, which results in environmental pollution and degradation. The ecological footprint of cities does not restrict to their boundaries, and the impact is felt from forests, agriculture, water, and other surfaces, which supply resources to their residents. Therefore, cities have an enormous bearing on the surrounding ecosystem, making them centers for water and other environmental pollution. Even though water, sanitation, and access rates are generally higher in urban areas compared to the rural counterparts, it's hard to match this pace with planning and infrastructure in many regions globally. Today, almost 700 million urban people live without proper sanitation, contributing to poor health conditions. The ever-increasing global population, lack of adequate clean water at a global scale, the high-energy demand, the intricate interplay between water and energy, and the environmental impact of contaminated water supplies globally all point toward the challenges that need to be addressed. This chapter will discuss some of the aspects of water pollution, categories of water pollution, impacts of water pollution, socio-economic and environmental challenges, water quality and sustainability goals, and water laws and policies.

Keywords

Contaminated water; Law; Policies; Remediation strategies; Sustainability goals

1: Introduction

Water is an essential natural resource for living beings. Due to rapid industrialization, urbanization, and improper utilization, over two-thirds of the world population is now facing water scarcity issues (UNWWDR, 2015; Meldrum, 2019). A well-known fact is that 80% of water is salty water and unusable, and out of 2% of freshwater, only a small fraction (0.036%) is accessible for use. Due to pollution and the ignorance of water management needed by industrial and government authorities, freshwater resources are becoming unavailable (Jayaswal et al., 2018).

Cities are known as hub for the economic development, and interestingly, 20% of the world's population reside in urban areas and generate 60% of the GWP. Emerging cities create opportunities, but due to rapid growth, poor maintenance of water infrastructure and inadequate waste management may result in water pollution, water scarcity, and overall threat to city resilience (Mishra et al., 2020).

With almost a third of the population lacking access to safe drinking water (United Nations, 2020), it is important to understand the socio-economic factors that contribute to water pollution, and an outbreak of diseases, and other consequences resulting from pollution (Lado, 1997; Kong et al., 2020). Every year, an estimated five million people lose their lives due to water-related diseases (Singh et al., 2019). Despite the fact that water pollution is everywhere, a universal solution may not be viable because of the differences in the type and sources of these pollutants. Water pollution, unlike climate change, is localized in nature. There is a significant need for local/state government intervention to create viable solutions to address water pollution (Helmer and Hespanhol, 1997). Most of the time, waterborne pollution and associated diseases may lead to social breakdown, hunger, and economic disasters to the affected people (World Health Organization, 2020). The USEPA was established to enact the Clean Water Act and to address issues arising from water pollution. The purpose of this was to address environmental pollution, identify sources, and maintain the integrity of the water resources. National water quality criteria have been developed to address several different types of pollution, including the ones coming from point and nonpoint sources. Clean Water Act makes it unlawful to discharge pollutants into any water source unless obtaining proper permission from the USEPA. Legislative frameworks are there to address the pollution issues.

The United Nations also strives to provide clean drinking water access to billions of people affected by water pollution and lack of sanitation. Almost 40% of the world's population lack access to proper sanitation. Pandemics such as COVID-19, EBOLA, and others add additional stress to people already suffering from water pollution issues. To address some of these, the United Nations came up with sustainable development goals (SDG-6), which focuses on water. SDG6 has some very bold goals to address water pollution across the world. Although many locations are not on track, there is a significant effort done to address the issues. In the United States, many laws and policies were created to address the water pollution issue, which includes the Water Quality Act, Clean Water Restoration Act, Federal Water Pollution Control Act, and others. Many of these laws and policies help industries to develop short- and long-term goals and the best management practices needed to address the issues (USEPA, 2012).

2: Water pollution

Water pollution is the result of unwanted materials in the water, which alter overall water quality (Alrumman et al., 2016) and harm to the environment and health (Briggs, 2003). Water is a natural resource, essential for life and human development (Bibi et al., 2016). Polluted water is not safe for drinking purposes; it could be a major source of waterborne diseases and infections. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 80% of diseases are waterborne. Drinking water in various countries is not safe and fail to meet WHO standards (Khan et al., 2013). Consumption of unhygienic water causes infectious diseases and results in 485,000 diarrheal deaths each year (WHO, 2019).

There are various sources of water pollution: anthropogenic as well as natural. Some natural factors that affect water quality include storms, earthquakes, floods, volcanic eruptions, atmospheric deposition, etc. Anthropogenic sources include domestic and industrial, construction sites, radioactive wastes, agricultural substances, oil pollution, river and marine dumping. Table 1 depicts pollutant source, type, example, and effect on water quality (Schwarzenbach et al., 2010). Urban areas has potential to cause major water pollution because cities generate humongous solid waste and fail to manage it, and this ineffective waste disposal causes air, water, and soil contamination. Open landfills contribute to the contamination of drinking water and transmit diseases. Urban storm water with runoff of roof and road contaminants like pesticides lead to sewer systems pollution, then contaminate receiving water resources, and make them unsuitable for drinking and other purposes. These water resources are polluted progressively due to the discharge of industrial untreated pollutants, chemicals, and hazardous wastes into the water body (Koop and van Leeuwen, 2017).

Table 1

Reproduced with permission from Carpenter, S.R., Caraco, N.F., Correll, D.L., Howarth, R.W., Sharpley, A.N., Smith, V.H., 1998. Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorous and nitrogen. Ecol. Appl. 8 (3).

As discussed above, water pollution sources could be natural and anthropogenic, but major focus is on chemical pollution in the literature. Chemical pollutants are categorized as micropollutants and macropollutants. Natural organic constituents and nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus are examples of macropollutants. Micropollutants are toxic even at relatively low concentrations as compared to macropollutants. Pollutants such as agricultural runoff (pesticides and synthetic fertilizers), personal care products, household chemicals, surfactants, dyes, detergents, pharmaceuticals, hormones, etc., find their way into aquatic systems (Fig. 1) and affect aquatic and human life adversely (Schwarzenbach et al., 2010). Many of these have urban origin and been widely used in our daily life. Pathogenic microbes also find their way from diverse sources, including hospital, research laboratory as untreated sewage, septic tanks, and from food processing and meat packaging industries (Luo et al., 2014).

Fig. 1

Fig. 1 Schematic layout of sources of urban runoff pollution: atmospheric deposition (dry and wet), activity related (exhaust emissions, road, tire and brake wear, vehicle fluid leakage, etc.), land use/cover (building and infrastructure material like paving, concrete, guardrails, urban lights, asphalt, etc.), behaviors related like cleaning and land cover activities (pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers, personal care and household cleaning products, etc.). Based on Petrucci, G., Gromaire, M.C., Shorshani, M.F., et al., 2014. Nonpoint source pollution of urban stormwater runoff: a methodology for source analysis. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 21, 10225–10242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-2845-4.

Water pollution could be a result of point, diffuse, and transboundary sources of pollution. A single source of pollution, which is identifiable and localized, is considered as a point source, whereas a diffuse pollution source is widespread in activities with no discrete source (USEPA, 2002).

Point source—Point source water pollution is a result of pollution coming from a specific definite source, viz., sewage leak or industrial wastewater discharge. Point sources are easy to identify and comparatively easy to fix (Table 1). Point source pollutants can enter into the water directly, whereas nonpoint sources come from many contaminators and are more difficult to control: for example, pollutants from agricultural fields, livestock pens, abandoned mines, and building establishments.

Nonpoint source—Various sources cause diffused water pollution, which contributes to a small amount but hard to distinguish/identify sources that combine to cause significant pollution. In urban settings, pollutants are released from car parks and transportation, including, but not limited to, oil, brake fluid, rubber from tires and brakes, vehicle exhaust emissions, heavy metal pollution from washed roofs (Schwarzenbach et al., 2010).

In rural areas, agricultural inputs are an important source of micropollutants, which contribute to millions of tons of pesticide each year, animal slurry, manure, and sewage sludge. Runoff and leaching from contaminated land, construction sites, and mining activities also release micropollutants into the environment. Another contributing source could be municipal or hazardous waste sites, which could contribute to toxic chemicals in surface runoff and underground water (Müller et al., 2020).

Transboundary—Pollution cannot be contained on the map and easily transported across hundreds of kilometers and across borders. Pollution that originated in one country can be detrimental to another country's environment. Marine pollution is an example of a transboundary pollution problem involving many nations/states. Contamination could be a result of a disaster-like oil spill. Transboundary pollution has become a tough global problem. It has resulted in disputes across administrations. The lack of qualifying methods for transboundary pollutants has resulted in adverse effects on surrounding as well as water ecology and human health (Zhang et al., 2018).

2.1: Emerging contaminants

Contaminants of emerging concern are a complex family of synthetic chemicals and another important category of water pollutants. Contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) have recently gained important consideration in safe drinking water production. Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) are a group of chemicals and have been manufactured for over 60 years having a wide area of applications. These are water and grease repellent and found their applications in many household products like nonstick cookware, floor polish, water-resistant textiles like carpets, and upholstery. These are organic compounds with long or short carbon chain and strong C glyph_sbnd F bond. This makes them nondegradable and persistent in the environment.

The major groups of emerging contaminants include microplastics (MPs), pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), phthalates, bisphenol A (BPA), alkylphenols (APs), and perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) is also an area of concern in different countries (Rossner et al., 2009). Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are most studied so far and include perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), which have an extensive use in different industries globally (Domingo and Nadal, 2019; Fàbrega et al., 2014; United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 2009). The mode of exposure to PFAS is reported through the dietary intake, drinking water, and PFAS-polluted indoor environments (Winkens et al., 2017; Park et al., 2019; Andersson et al., 2019). The USEPA (Office of Water) developed Provisional Health Advisory limits for PFOA and PFOS with Provisional Health Advisory values of 400 and 200 ng/L, respectively, in 2009 (USEPA, 2009). Recently, the USEPA published PFOA and PFOS Drinking Water Health Advisories at 70 parts per trillion (USEPA, 2016). These health advisory limits are supposed to offer protection from adverse health effects of PFOA and PFOS in drinking water.

3: Categories of water pollution

3.1: Groundwater

Geological formation of aquifers directly affects and contributes to groundwater contamination, where pollutants enter into underground water tables and are transported to the overstretching of the drinking water source. In simple words, toxic elements leach in the water supply from aquifer's geological composition. Arsenic, chromium, fluoride, and iron are the main elements of concern posing groundwater contamination.

Arsenic is the most notorious on the list and is of global concern. For example, in Bangladesh, 35–75 million people are affected (Tord et al., 2006; Chen et al., 2009), and in the West Bengal region of India, 6 million people are at risk of arsenic poisoning (Haque et al., 2003). The high mortality of ~ 250 k children/year in Bangladesh got attention, and large-scale interventions and improvement programs in the area are in effect to provide safe drinking water through wells. Arsenic pollution is a problem in some parts of the United States as well (Frost et al., 2003; Peters, 2008). Various factors responsible for arsenic contamination include high weathering of natural arsenic-rich rocks and deposition of this in river floodplains and long residence time of this organic-rich deposit in the aquifer whereby absorbed arsenic is released into the water.

The diseases resulting from chemical pollution is a global issue, and overall burden is hard to estimate. The burden in specific areas like the arsenic problem in Bangladesh is huge. Some other such examples of local burden of disease are methylmercury poisoning (Minamata disease—nervous system disease), and chronic cadmium toxicity (Itai-Itai disease—the kidney and bone disease), and exposure to nitrate (methemoglobinemia—circulatory system disease) and lead results in anemia and hypertension. Acute (irritation or inflammation of the eyes and nose, skin, and gastrointestinal system) and chronic (copper, chromium, or arsenic in drinking water) exposure can lead to many adverse health effects (WHO, 2003).

Municipal solid waste landfills, hazardous waste, nuclear waste sites, runoff from agricultural land, accidental spills, and waste discharge from the industry are contributing to groundwater contamination. Illegal dumping and discharge of waste materials is a threat to abandoned sites, and it can then result in groundwater pollution. Through leaching by contaminated landfills, approximately 100 million tons of discarded waste that contains radioactive and hazardous wastes enters the groundwater table (USEPA, 2008).

3.2: Surface water

Surface water pollution is generally caused by pathogens, nutrients, plastics, chemicals such as heavy metals, pesticides, antibiotics, industrial waste discharges, and individuals dumping into waterways. Urban storm water runoff is a major contributor of surface water pollution, and it can potentially lead to groundwater pollution. The distribution and concentration of these pollutants depends on various factors, and these pollutants have seasonal variations (Göbel et al., 2007).

These pollutants have significantly different environmental impacts. For example, the presence of antibiotics can lead to antibiotic resistance, excessive nutrients could result in harmful algal blooms, pathogens can pose human health risks, and chemical pollutants can have toxic effects. Surface waters generally suffer from combined impacts of multiple pollutants. According to the USEPA, nearly half of the surface waters (streams, lakes, and rivers) are contaminated and are unfit for human consumption, swimming, and fishing.

3.3: Ocean water

Ocean or marine pollution arises from land sources and includes a combination of chemicals and trash (including plastics). Marine trash includes manufactured products that end up in the ocean. Plastics are the most common types of marine debris. Plastic waste is particularly problematic as it takes hundreds of years to decompose. Recent studies have shown significant amounts of microplastics in the marine environment (Sheavly and Register, 2007).

There is some evidence that microplastics (polypropylene) will readily absorb organic compounds such as PCBs and other persistent organic pollutants by sorption processes, and these interactions are under increased examination. These microplastics are capable of absorbing and concentrating aquatic chemicals over five orders of magnitude. Consequently, the presence of microplastics in the aquatic environments and the presence of chemical contaminants, combined with their capability to travel long distances, are of serious concern. The ingestion of these contaminated microplastics by the aquatic organisms epitomizes an exposure route for toxic chemical pollutants into the food chain (Eriksson and Burton, 2003; Moore, 2008).

4: Impact of water pollution

As discussed in Section 2, there are two major categories of pollutants: micropollutants and macropollutants. Macropollutants include nutrients species (nitrogen and phosphorus) and some other natural organic constituents. These nutrients could lead to high biomass production, resulting in an increase in toxic algal blooms in aquatic environments, and high salt loads inhibit crop growth in agriculture.

As discussed earlier, micronutrient pollutants include synthetic fertilizers, pesticides and dyes, personal care products, hormones, detergents, and pharmaceutical products. Most heavy metals (in low concentrations) exist naturally in the environment, viz., iron and aluminum are part of rocks, and volcanoes discharge some other heavy metals like mercury and lead. Not all heavy metals are toxic but plants and animals need certain heavy metals in low quantities for important life processes. For example, iron is essential for hemoglobin to transfer oxygen in blood, and zinc is essential for enzymes. All heavy metals are poisonous at certain concentrations (Mehmood et al., 2019; Kumaraswamy et al., 2019). Certain heavy metals are toxic even at a very low concentration. Mercury, lead, and cadmium are such examples. Even essential heavy metals are poisonous in larger quantities especially after bioaccumulation as we go higher in the food chain/web (Goolsby and Battaglin, 2001; Kumaraswamy et al., 2019; Mehmood et al., 2019). There are many anthropogenic sources of heavy metals like steel- and iron-manufacturing industries.

Heavy metals and industrial waste can accumulate in lakes and rivers, posing health risk to humans and animals. Industrial waste imparts toxins, which are the major cause of immunosuppression, acute poisoning, and reproductive failure. Infectious diseases, like cholera (Juneja and Chaudhary, 2013), and other diseases like gastroenteritis, kidney problems, and diarrhea are spreading through contaminated water (Khan and Ghouri, 2011). Literature suggests that environmental pollution and degradation impacts people's well-being negatively (Adeola, 2011).

Exposure assessment of aquatic micropollutants is complex as these pollutants can undergo various chemical reactions with natural organic matter, minerals, redox-active species, and even microorganisms (Schwarzenbach et al., 2003, 2006). Assessing environmental and health risks is also challenging for organic pollutants like various heavy metals (Ni, Cu Cr, Zn, Pb, Cd, etc.) and certain metalloids like arsenic (As). Various chemical reactions like adsorption, precipitation/dissolution, oxidation/reduction, and complexation determine the transportation and bioavailability of these persistent pollutants, which do not degrade in the environment. These metallic elements exhibit different solubility under oxic and reducing conditions. For example, redox-sensitive iron forms oxide particles in the presence of oxygen, which strongly absorbs heavy metals and metalloids (Waychunas et al., 2005). Under reducing conditions with depleted oxygen environments, these particles reduce and dissolve and release adsorbed toxic loads (Roberts et al., 2010).

4.1: Human health

There is a direct link between pollution and human health. Ten percent of the population consumes food and vegetables, which are grown in contaminated areas. The risk associated with the consumption of polluted water includes, but not limited to, respiratory, diarrheal, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and neurological disorders. For example, nitrogenous chemicals result in blue baby syndrome (methemoglobinemia) and even cancer. There is a high mortality rate due to cancer in areas, where there is a lack of access to drinking water such as rural settings. Disadvantaged population is at a greater risk of disease due to poor standards of sanitation, hygiene, and water quality. Poor water quality results in 3.1% of deaths (Pawari and Gawande, 2015; Haseena et al., 2017). This affects disproportionally pregnant women, fetuses, and then infants.

Metal-contaminated water results in various disorders related to liver, renal failure, hair loss, and neurological disorder. Arsenic exposure leads to an accumulation of it in body, mainly in skin, hair, and nails. This results in keratosis (pigmentation) on the skin, elevated blood pressure, and neurological disorders. Due to its carcinogenicity, it could lead to skin, lung, and internal organ cancer. Fluoride is another substance that is natural in origin and can be problematic at higher concentrations. Fluoride higher than 1.5 mg/L is harmful and results in pitting of tooth enamel and bones causing osteoporosis (Kim et al., 2020). Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins can cause seawater pollution even at very low concentrations (Adeola, 2011). Mercury also poses a health risk when local seafood is contaminated with it.

Contaminated and untreated drinking water can most commonly cause diarrhea and other waterborne diseases. For example, Vibrio cholerae can cause cholera, Shigella bacteria can cause shigellosis, and Salmonella bacteria can cause inflammation of the intestine and results in death. Hepatitis affects the liver and is caused by contaminated water and can be fatal if not treated. Rotavirus, adenovirus, caliciviruses, and Norwalk can cause gastroenteritis. Cryptosporidium parvum can cause cryptosporidiosis, and Entamoeba histolytica can cause galloping amoeba, which affects the stomach lining; Giardia lamblia can cause giardiasis, known as travelers’ disease. The spread of enteric diseases is mostly via the consumption of contaminated water with feces of infected people or excreta of infected animals (Haseena et al., 2017).

4.2: Ecosystems

Water pollution has a negative impact on ecosystems. Agriculture is the main sector of economic activity. It is well known that agricultural activities contaminate water resources. Fertilizers are essential for agricultural production but surface runoff from agricultural areas is one major source of water pollution as it contains high loads of nutrients and pesticides. Some farmland activities like livestock raising also contribute nutrient-loaded to the surface and groundwater resources, especially the increase in nitrate concentration in groundwater. This nutrient-rich surface runoff can cause eutrophication in lakes. Surface runoff and leaching are the major sources of pesticide entry in receiving water bodies. Pesticides are nonbiodegradable and persistent in nature. Aquatic poor water quality affects crop production and disturbs the food chain, especially aquatic life, and eventually, it affects human health. For example, iron and lead could be harmful to fish and then for human health as metals bio-accumulate with the complexity of the food web.

Water pollution not only affects flora but fauna as well. Many muscle species are currently threatened or endangered. Amphibians are also affected by bad water quality. The frogs live in their early life in water and are considered as an indicator of water quality, and there is a decline in frog species as amphibians are susceptible to dermal absorption of toxicants in water. The presence of herbicides and pesticides in water has delayed the growth of tadpoles and frogs and can even lead to death.

4.3: Economic loss

The undesirable ecological and environmental consequences of water pollution are some of the most evident global concerns. The diminishing water quality for the water bodies like lakes is more alarming due to their economic, social, and ecological importance. These water bodies are economically important for fisheries, livestock, irrigation, forestry, and sustain habitats; these are socially important for water supply and ecological functions such as nutrient and mineral recycling, water table recharging, breeding ground for amphibians and for maintaining biodiversity. There is another concern for these water bodies of becoming a sink for waste from urban sources, industries, and untreated sewage discharge, which even further degrade water quality. Industrial and municipal solid waste can be discharged into surface water directly where regulations are not so strict.

Most of the river water pollution comes from many small sources of pollutants like local industries, households, restaurants, hotels, hospitals, etc. Surface runoff can have oil, pesticides, and fertilizers, road salts, and heavy metals from numerous sources that often drain directly into streams or lakes. Table 2 summarizes the source, type, example, and effect on water quality of various pollutants.

Table 2

Abbreviations: As, arsenic; DDT, dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane; F, fluorine; PAHs, poly aromatic hydrocarbons; PBDEs, polychlorinated diphenyl ethers; PCBs, polychlorinated biphenyls; PCDDs, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxines; PCDFs, polychlorinated dibenzofurans; Se, selenium; U, uranium.

Reproduced with permission from Schwarzenbach, R.P., Escher, B.I., Fenner, K., Hofstetter, T.B., Johnson, C.A., et al., 2006. The challenge of micropollutants in aquatic systems. Science 313, 1072–1077.

5: Socio-economic and environmental challenges

Socio-economic challenges refer to the social as well as economic impacts on the environment. Water is considered a universal resource that directly influences our day-to-day activities. According to the United Nations, "2.2 Billion people lack access to safe and clean drinking water and more than 290,000 children under the age of 5 die every year due to lack of safe drinking water" (WHO/UNICEF, 2019). We use water for household as well as recreational purposes. It also supports wildlife, biodiversity, and communities. We also use water for the manufacture of most consumer products. In their natural and conserved states, rivers, lakes, and streams could create value. Source waters are often available to people to use, recreate in, and discharge pollution unless regulated. Unless there is intervention from the government or regulatory agencies, water contamination is an inadvertent consequence.

There are numerous responses to ecological contamination. For example, external costs associated with pollution can be addressed using discharge taxes, cap-and-trade plans, and regulations. Employing these responses necessitates an understanding of the size of the problem. When there are contamination externalities, economies fail to precisely convey the public costs connected with the contamination. In such cases, a valuable perception is the public cost of contamination, which can be defined as the cost to the community(ies) as a result of increased pollution. In the context of climate change, this is a well-known concept. Studies have shown a relationship between increased CO2 emissions and their impacts on economic growth using multiple climate models. These estimates have been extremely impactful in communicating the influence of climate change to the public. However, the social cost of aquatic contamination did not receive similar attention. It complicates the estimation of the social cost of pollution most probably because location plays an important role. For example, CO2 from urban areas, forests, or rural locations generates similar damage to the ecosystem. However, this is not true in terms of water pollution. For example, antibiotics or pharmaceuticals released into waterways near drinking water treatment plants are likely to levy much sophisticated social damages than the same amount of pollutants entering waterways faraway from drinking water treatment plants. Similarly, nutrient runoffs from agriculture significantly damage streams near the farmland and dilute out at farther distances.

Contaminated seepage into rivers and contaminants of emerging concern such as antibiotics, personal care products, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) that may be concentrated in industrial areas where damages could be significant, however, has little influence outside those zones. Similarly, industrial chemicals such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and naturally occurring metals like arsenic and lead are toxins that may be concentrated in zones closer to the factories. The impacts of these contaminants are also dependent upon the soil, groundwater, and stream characteristics where they are released.

Toxic releases that happen in urban locations with higher population density may result in much higher social impact compared to rural or low population density locations. Estimating the social cost, identification of the sources of contamination, their fate and transport, and influence on our ecosystem services ought to be understood.

Also, it is crucial to understand how people value these environmental services. Gomez et al. (2019) have reported the socio-economic factors influencing access in the countryside of low- and middle-income nations. Their study suggested that the socio-economic factors are linked to water access. They reported that women's access to education has a vital role in the lower- and lower-middle-income countries (Wanninger, 1999). Also, gross national income, farming, growing rural residents, and governance guidelines, as well as political consistency, and regulatory strategies were interconnected and play a vital role in the policymaking process.

The current state of education, income, health, occupations across the population, and the combinations of these facets in the society, and their financial development factors, reflect on the general socio-economic standing of the society. Some studies have pointed out that contamination has an adverse impact on the location and public living within (Adeola, 2011). Environmental pollution poses a threat to humans as well as to the rest of the ecosystem. Likewise, when it comes to financial growth and progress, contamination has adverse effects on the lives, commerce, schooling, and profession of the residents in general. Other effects of contamination may include damage to biodiversity and reduced nutrition and farming goods and their yield. For example, in the Niger region, the source of revenue for the public is reliant on land and water, where occurrences of oil spills are very common. Countless people lose their source of revenue such as fishing, carving canoes, and forest management that accounts for 70% of the entire employment, often leading to children from families affected by these disasters, who can no longer pay their fees to drop out of schools (Ipingbemi, 2009). Therefore, water pollution could be linked with poverty. For instance, Ahmad et al. (2007) have reported problems of arsenic pollution in Bangladesh. People suffering from arsenic exposure are not allowed in public, schools, and public events, and also are restricted by their friends and families (Alam et al., 2002; Rahman et al., 2016). Generally, the sicknesses originated by contamination perpetrate a substantial financial cost worldwide as well as direct health costs, and opportunity costs ensuing in reduced output of the individuals impaired by contamination (Landrigan and Fuller, 2015). Kong et al. (2020) have reported that housing type significantly affected the water and sanitation issues in Malaysia. Lower household income and lower education also influenced the disposal practices (Kong et al., 2020). The United States spends approximately 76.6 billion dollars on treatment of illnesses in kids because of environmental contamination (Trasande and Liu, 2011), while the price of occupational diseases and injuries has been reported at 250 billion dollars (Leigh, 2011; Landrigan and Fuller, 2016).

6: Water pollution control

In 1972, the United States Congress responded to public outrage by passing the Clean Water Act (CWA). Discharge of raw effluents from industries, cities, and commercial institutions