Relationship Between Microbes and the Environment for Sustainable Ecosystem Services, Volume 2: Microbial Mitigation of Waste for Sustainable Ecosystem Services

By Ajay Kumar

Relationship Between Microbes and Environment for Sustainable Ecosystem Services, Volume Two: Microbial Mitigation of Waste for Sustainable Ecosystem Services promotes advances in sustainable solutions, value-added products, and fundamental research in microbes and the environment. Topics include advanced and recent discoveries in the use of microbes for sustainable development. Volume Two describes the successful application of microbes and their derivatives for waste management of potentially toxic and relatively novel compounds. This proposed book will be helpful to environmental scientists, experts and policymakers working in the field of microbe- based mitigation of environmental wastes.

The book provides reference information ranging from the description of various microbial applications for the sustainability in different aspects of food, energy, environment industry and social development.

• Covers the latest developments, recent applications and future research avenues in microbial biotechnology for sustainable development
• Includes expressive tables and figures with concise information about sustainable ecosystem services
• Provides a wide variety of applications and modern practices of harnessing the potential of microbes in the environment

• Language: English
• Publisher: Elsevier Science
• Release date: Aug 20, 2022
• ISBN: 9780323910576

Book preview

Preface

Ecosystem services offer benefits to humans, reiterating their reliance on nature, and frame the decisions that emphasize the enduring value of nature to our well-being. Ecosystem services are the direct and indirect contributions of ecosystems to human well-being. They either directly or indirectly support our survival and quality of life. This book, Relationship Between Microbes and the Environment for Sustainable Ecosystem Services, Volume 2: Microbial Mitigation of Waste for Sustainable Ecosystem Services, present up-to-date advanced knowledge on sustainable solutions, value-added products, human nutrition, and fundamental research on microbes and the environment. It includes advanced and recent topics on the use of microbes for the sustainable management of wastes. This book will be helpful to scientists, experts, and industry professionals working in the field of microbe-based products. The book covers the latest biotechnological interventions for harnessing microbial aspects on a large scale for waste utilization and management. This volume will serve as a compilation of authoritative information on various microbial applications for sustainability in different aspects of food, energy, environment, industry, and social development. It covers reference information ranging from describing various microbial applications for sustainability in different aspects of food, energy, environment, industry, and society. The book includes the latest description of the relationship between microbes and the environment, focusing on their impact on ecosystem services. This volume serves as an excellent reference and provides a holistic approach to the most recent advances in applying various microbes as a biotechnological tool for a vast range of sustainable applications, modern practices, and exploring futuristic strategies to harness its full potential.

This volume will be an excellent reference book for microbial science scholars, especially microbiologists, biotechnologists, researchers, technocrats, and agriculture scientists in microbial biotechnology. We are honored that leading scientists with extensive, in-depth experience and expertise in the use of microbial biotechnology for sustainable practices took the time and effort to contribute these excellent chapters.

We thank the Elsevier team for their generous assistance, constant support, and patience in initiating the volume. We are also grateful to our esteemed friends, well-wishers, and faculty colleagues at Lovely Professional University, India, and Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Rishon LeZion, Israel.

Jastin Samuela; Ajay Kumarb; Joginder Singha, a Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, India, b Volcani Center, Rishon LeZion, Israel

Chapter 1: Effect of pollution on sediments and their impact on the aquatic ecosystem

Swarnkumar Reddy; W. Jabez Osborne    Biomolecules Lab, School of BioSciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India

Abstract

Aquatic ecosystems are hotspots for water contamination, which results from various anthropogenic activities such as industrialization, agricultural activities and urbanization. The diverse use of various chemicals in pesticides, detergents and inorganic salts in various industries drain as effluents and find their way to various water bodies. The aquatic ecosystem has an emerging threat caused by microplastic as a result of dumping plastic into water bodies. Thus, resulting in degradation of the quality of aquatic sediments, which is assessed by the enrichment factor. The effect of pollution on sediments can be evaluated by degree of pollution. Aquatic sediments are the primary source of essential nutrition for the ecosystem. Potential contamination of sediments with high concentrations of heavy metals and microplastics affects all forms of aquatic organisms, most particularly Phyto and Zooplanktons. Eutrophication, oil spills and aquaculture activities are other factors that affect the aquatic ecosystem.

Keywords

Aquatic ecosystem; Microplastics; Sediments; Heavy metals; Phytoplankton; Zooplankton

1: Introduction

Aquatic pollution can be defined as the phenomenon of contaminating a water body by the ingress of materials or compounds into the aquatic ecosystem. Climatic change usually has a vast impact on the aquatic ecosystem by affecting various abiotic factors such as precipitation and temperature, which impacts the system's normal functioning (Harley et al., 2006). Water being the most vital natural source, the pollution of the aquatic ecosystem hitches both environmental health and human well-being (Schmeller et al., 2018). The quality of the water is highly affected by pollution, and the degree of pollution is measured by the quality of the water. The major source of freshwater pollution is domestic sewage from cities and towns released into rivers and lakes. Domestic sewage contributes over 20% of overall water pollutants (Wahaab and Badawy, 2004).

Apart from domestic sewage, industrial and agricultural advancements and various xenobiotics have serious freshwater and marine ecosystem threats. The disposal of treated or untreated sewage and industrial wastewater accounts for the point source of pollution. In the case of agricultural runoffs and anthropological disposal of garbage on the coastal line, water transportation was considered the non-point source of aquatic pollution (Mantzavinos and Psillakis, 2004; Taebi and Droste, 2004). Pesticides and fertilizers from agricultural activities pollute the water bodies by highly affecting their physicochemical parameters, particularly biological oxygen demand and other factors like phosphorous and nitrogen concentrations. Among the numerous sources of pollution, the major representatives are industrial drains, agricultural runoffs, anthropological disposal in marine cost, etc. These activities alter the quality of the water by the addition of a diverse group of pollutants, including hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, chlorinated solvents, and various heavy metals (Pratibha and Shachi, 2016; Sprovieri et al., 2007).

Being a serious threat and also an alarming situation, aquatic pollution has become a global concern. Globally aquatic pollution was addressed through three major classes, namely organic and inorganic pollutants, heavy metals, and various pandemic microorganisms. But in recent decades, the advancements in industrialization and agriculture have given rise to various pollutants. Microplastics, nanoparticles, radioactive pollutants, and various compounds from pharmaceutical industries like antibiotics, etc. (Naik et al., 2019). Water is the most ambient and vital ingredient of the environment and an integral part of human life. Pollution in the aquatic ecosystem also leads to the deposition of these pollutants in humans because of the consumption of aquatic livestock. The water pollutants also hinder the growth of aquatic flora and fauna such as seaweed, water bird, mollusks, and fishes which act as a major nutritional source for humans. All these pollutants also enter the human body and are known to deposit in fat and other tissues (Berglund et al., 1992). Even at trace amounts, these pollutants are toxic and are known to cause various serious health complications such as inflammation, gastrointestinal disorders, compressive immune disorders, infertility, etc. This chapter of the book details the various pollutants of aquatic sediments and their effects on the health of the aquatic ecosystem.

2: Hydrologic cycle

The hydrologic cycle can be defined as the inflow and outflow of water from the aquatic ecosystem between surface water bodies and the sea. The hydrologic cycle is a complex process that assists a vital process in circulating matter and energy into the aquatic ecosystem (Möllmann and Diekmann, 2012). The hydrometeorological regime highly influences the life of aquatic organisms and the development of the ecosystem. The hydrological regime is highly characterized by groundwater table, various runoff, water quality, precipitation, ice and sediment drift, temperature, and solar interface (Koryto et al., 2017).

Being the fascinating matter, which encompasses all fields of science, also keeps all lifeforms alive. Apart from this, water is also used in various anthropological activities like industrial activities, including recreation and transportation. Various human activities in an ecosystem exhibit various effects on various components of the ecosystem (Crowder and Norse, 2008). The self-hindering process of water is able to regenerate the original equilibrium of water homeostasis. Prolonged effects of anthropological activities affect the ecosystem by long-term negative effects on water quality, groundwater table, runoff and sediment drift, etc., which also degrades the regional ecosystem (Singh et al., 2010).

The excessive use of water resources and human activities like industrial discharge affect both water quality and quantity. The change in the water quality is affected by a direct discharge of contaminated waters and the decrease in the quantity of water in an ecosystem by changing the physiological properties of water (Carr and Neary, 2008). The effects of pollution on water quality can be distinguished into two modes such as point source and non-point source. In which, point source can be given as the pollution which source can be defined (industrial and domestic discharge), whereas non-point source can be defined as the secondary effects of human activities (Shen et al., 2012).

3: Effect of pollutants on aquatic sediments

3.1: Organic pollutants and plant nutrients

This class of pollutants comparts of major freshwater contaminants such as aquatic metabolites, domestic sewage from urban treatment plants, and other domestic activities. Organic pollutants widely involve biodegradable forms (mostly plant-based products). These also include various non-biodegradable inert pollutants (Badmus et al., 2018; Wu et al., 2008). Organic pollutants from a natural source are biodegradable and do not have any direct effect on the ecosystem. In where incase of synthetic man-made organic compounds, they often need special treatments to remove them from the ecosystem (Joner and Leyval, 2003).

Organic pollution can be classified into three-stage based on the degree of pollution:

A small load of organic pollutants characterizes the first degree of organic pollution. In this pollution stage, there will be little variation in the natural cycle ecosystem, which also affects flora and fauna. The point of discharge is found to be with a maximal load of pollutants, where the pollutants disappear within a short distance downstream, and it is removed by the water's self-renewal process (Barletta et al., 2019). Organic pollutants at minimal concentration were found to be beneficial to the ecosystem, where it increases the nutrient supply for the ecosystem, and the whole degree of pollution can be befitting to the aquatic system (Reddy and Osborne, 2020b).

Further, an increase in the level of pollution results in a significant decrease in dissolved oxygen. These organic pollutants enrich the growth of certain species of plants and animals, which in turn affect several other organisms (Reddy and Osborne, 2022). The dispersion of pollution is notable from a considerable distance from the site of pollution. Further, the absence of pollution probably recovers the pollutants downstream. The prolonged persistence of pollution may result in a barrier for migratory fishes.

The increase in pollution beyond the tolerable limit affects the aquatic ecosystem, and the ecosystem loses self-purification. A prolonged increase in the pollutants drastically decreases dissolved oxygen as low as zero (Wang et al., 2010). This degree of pollution affects the growth of all organisms in the ecosystem, and it only flourishes the sewage fungus, parasitic worms, and several larvae. The level of pollution can be determined with Biological Monitoring Working Party (BMWP) score. Severe organic pollution drastically decreases the growth of photosynthetic bacteria, which in turn affects reoxygenation. Due to low oxygen levels, several anaerobic bacteria thrive and metabolize the organic matter in the water, resulting in methane, ammonia, and hydrogen sulfide. This stage of pollution cannot be remediated, and the pollution persists from a much greater distance downstream from the point of pollution (Lovley and Phillips, 1988) Table 1.

Table 1

3.2: Physical pollutants

A change in color primarily causes pollutants that impact the physical appearance and properties of water these pollutants, increase in temperature, the release of radioactive compounds, and foam. Physical pollutants can be classified based on their mode of dispersion and nature of pollutant. Common physical pollutant includes,

3.2.1: Suspended solids

Industries are the main source of excreting suspended solids and particulate matter. Suspended solids have several consequences on the health of the aquatic ecosystem. Suspended solids hinder the penetration of sunlight, thereby affecting the photosynthesis of aquatic plants. The lack of photosynthetic plants has a secondary effect on the food chain. Suspended particles tend to settle on aquatic plants and animals, affecting their regular metabolism (Au et al., 2004).

Prolonged exposure to elevated levels results in lethal effects on animals due to effects on sublethal organs and affects the respiratory system. More particularly, suspended solids in some industrial effluents with diverse chemicals react with the salts in the water and enter the food chain. For example, the iron content in the mining effluents reacts with oxygen in the water, forming iron hydroxide precipitates (Nazia, 2020).

3.2.2: Immiscible solvents

Immiscible liquids can be given as the colloidal suspension of one liquid in another, resulting in emulsions. Oils, greases, and various tarry substances with low dissolving ability in water come under immiscible pollutants. Oil refineries and water transportation account for this type of pollution. Immiscible pollutants are likely to affect the turbidity of the water like suspended solids, but immiscible solvents are more likely to float on the surface and adhere to the vegetative part of the water (Drinan et al., 2012). These pollutants are less likely to settle on the surface. Organic solvents and some oils are likely to decompose in the course of time by the action of marine microbes.

Various petroleum products and tars are slightly soluble in water, contaminating water by adding color and odor. Generally, oil is less dense, which spreads as an extremely thin surface on the water. Even a small amount of oil is likely to pollute a large surface of the water (Hrubesh et al., 2001). The spread of oil on the surface of water limits the transportation of oxygen and increases the biological load. This also affects the regular life cycle of various insects. To date, there are more than 3000 known immiscible pollutants. Although these affect the terrestrial ecosystem, they still have wide adverse effects on the aquatic ecosystem (Zhu and Guo, 2016).

3.2.3: Thermal pollutants

Elevated levels of temperature highly characterize industrial effluents. A negligible increase in the effluent temperature might not have any undesirable effect on a clean, fast-moving water ecosystem (Vasistha, 2014). The increase in temperature acts as a positive catalyst and increases the metabolic rates of all aquatic organisms. In this case, the dissolved oxygen can still be available, but the regular metabolism of the plants and animals will be altered. An increase in the temperate beyond tolerable limits decreases the dissolved oxygen levels by hydrolysis (Kalogirou, 2009). The extent of oxygen level at the point of discharge influences the overall effect of the oxygen balance of the particular effluent. The rise in the temperature beyond the tolerable levels affects the biodiversity of the ecosystem by promoting the population of specious indigenous to the warmer temperatures. A rise in temperature also increases the biochemical oxygen demand in sewage water. The rise in temperature and increase in chemical oxygen demand drastically decreases the dissolved oxygen, which has lethal effects n the plant and animal species.

3.2.4: Physiological pollutants

Physiological pollutants can be described as the pollutants or physical parameters of the effluents which affect the aquatic ecosystem. Simple examples of physiological pollutants are variations in the flow of water, changes in the taste, odor and, color of water (Chapman, 2007). The release of an enormous amount of effluents into a water body affects the state of the water. Extensive abstraction and release of relatively large volumes of intermittent effluents cause huge discrepancies in the state of water. The sudden increase in water inflow with repeated fluctuations allows only the organisms that can withstand the adverse conditions. A fast-flowing water stream will affect the plants which are habituated on the bed. Also, when water reverts back to its normal inflow, there will be a sharp decrease in dissolved oxygen concentration, which affects the organism depending on the high oxygen levels (Bolong et al., 2009).

Various chemical pollutants at negligible concentrations might not affect the biota of the ecosystem directly, but it has a considerable amount of indirect harmful effects on the organism. The chemical pollutants at lover concentration affect the state of water by giving it an unpleasant color and odor. The physiological effect of color depends on the light-absorbing property with respect to plants and photosynthetic algae and affects photosynthesis.

3.3: Toxic pollutants

3.3.1: Pesticides

Pesticides are one of the major agrochemicals used in agriculture. This includes various classes of chemicals such as insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides. An increase in the demand for agricultural products resulted in land clearance and the production of agricultural products (Singh et al., 2010). An increase in the production of agricultural products resulted in a drastic increase in the use of agrochemicals. The pesticides applied to the crops get washed and result in polluting the aquatic ecosystem (Ecobichon, 2001). All classes of pesticides are characterized ass high toxic substances and known carcinogens. These carcinogens exhibit lethal effects on aquatic life and also enters into marine organisms, thereby posing humans. The acute toxicity of pesticides causes various carcinogenic effects and also mortality. With the increased demand for food due to overpopulation and less knowledge on the use of pesticides, developing countries are the most effective by pesticide poising (Pimentel et al., 1993).

3.3.2: Salts

Salts are one of the major pollutants caused by agriculture. The increase in irrigation also increases the generation of brackish and leaching water, which results in an increased level of salinity in the aquatic ecosystem. Irrigation also increases the groundwater table by increasing the seepage from saline aquifers into watercourses (Velasco et al., 1764). Excessive irrigation also mobilizes the salts in the surface soli and causes leaching, causing salinization in the subsequent aquatic system (Hillel, 2000). Several other anthropological activities account for salinization, such as salt mining, mineral mining, excessive use of groundwater for domestic purposes, etc. Rapid climate change and rising sea levels also result in increased salt concentrations. An increase in salinity causes harmful effects on the freshwater ecosystem, whereas a decrease in the salinity of the marine ecosystem also affects the biological functioning of the marine biota. Constant inputs of freshwater from agricultural runoffs and arid landscapes dilute naturally saline ecosystems like backwater rivers, estuaries, and salt marshes with serious adverse effects (Herbert et al., 2015). The salinity in an aquatic ecosystem can be given as an isosmotic point. The salinity levels above or below this point have deleterious effects on the organism in the corresponding ecosystem. The change in the isosmotic point alters the osmotic pressure in the organs of aquatic animals and disrupts the metabolism. The organism's innate osmoregulation mechanism might not be sufficient in dealing with anthropological salinization or dilution (Jolly et al., 2008).

3.3.3: Heavy metals

Heavy metal pollution has been the most predominant pollution in the past two decades. Being the most persistent and toxic pollutant makes this top the list of inorganic pollutants. Heavy metals are introduced into the environment by various anthropogenic activities through various industries but are not limited to textile industries, tannery industries, mining, paint industries, etc. (Fairweather-Tait et al., 2011). Apart from human activities, various natural factors also add heavy metals to the environment. These include volcanic eruption and weathering of rocks. Rocks and soil are natural components of heavy metals released into the environment by constant weathering and erosion (Reddy and Osborne, 2020a). The release of heavy metals by natural processes such as slow leaching from soil and rocks actually releases low levels of heavy metals, which are naturally non-toxic. The release of heavy metals by human activities results in an enormous number of heavy metals. Industrial effluents are the major source of heavy metal contamination that directly affects fresh and marine ecosystems (Dean et al., 1972). Heavy metals are more significant than other pollutants in terms of ecotoxicology since heavy metals cannot be removed by microbial degradation and hence tends to remain accumulated in various life forms (Giller et al., 1998). The bioavailability of heavy metals in water by various modes of pollution increases the metal uptake by the organisms in the ecosystem. The absorption of heavy metals into the living system causes deleterious effects on the organism and also exhibits various dysfunction (Ansari et al., 2003). An aquatic ecosystem is the prime suspect of heavy metal pollution, which is bound to particulate matter and allows the settling of metals. Surface deposition is the most common scenario of metal poisoning where the sediment-bonded metal ions are readily adsorbed by the rooted plants in the ecosystem (Baby et al., 2010; Förstner and Wittmann, 2012).

Various unicellular phytoplankton and zooplanktons play a major role in the transfer of heavy metals to the upper class of the food chain. The consumption of aquatic unicellular by higher class organisms like fishes and further the consumption of fishes by humans leads to metal poising. Humans get most of the metal poisoning from aquatic sources, such as intake of contaminated water or consumption of foods from contaminated water. Animals and humans exhibit various levels of metal toxicity varying from mild irritation in the eyes, nose and skin. Prolonged exposure or high levels of metal toxicity can lead to hematemesis, vomiting, hypertension, and even organ failure (Pandey and Madhuri, 2014). Chromium, arsenic, lead, cadmium, and mercury are the most highly polluting heavy metals found in aquatic ecosystems. These metals are the most toxic heavy metals class due to their excessive persistence and highly toxic nature. There are few heavy metals such as cobalt, copper, iron, manganese, vanadium and zinc, which are considered essential elements at lower concentrations and are also known to involve in various cellular metabolism and signaling pathways (Nagajyoti et al., 2010) Table 2.

Table 2

3.4: Emerging pollutants

3.4.1: Microplastics

An aquatic ecosystem is one of the productive ecosystems which includes various subsystems such as freshwater ecosystems (ponds, Lakes, rivers and brackish waters, etc.) and marine ecosystems. An aquatic ecosystem is a much more complex ecosystem with rich biodiversity, including unicellular to large mammals (Xu et al., 2020). An aquatic ecosystem is one of the highly polluted and being in the threat of being polluted. Being the most used and considered a global concern in environmental pollution, plastic pollution makes the world the most unfavorable place to live (Chapron et al., 2018). Microplastics are the most serious threat to the aquatic ecosystem. The existence of small plastic pieces in micro size was first evidenced in the early 1970s. Microplastic debris is considered one of the most serious environmental threats. Microplastic pollution has increased at an alarming rate in recent years, which was evidenced by the detection of microplastics in living aquatic animals. Plastic particles inside a living system can only exist in the size of < 5 mm and cannot be seen through naked eyes, and are called microplastic (Ma et al., 2020). The release of plastic waste into the aquatic ecosystem can be defined by several sources. But the origin of microplastics comes from two major sources: the originally tiny plastic particles and the other as the release of microparticles from the plastics during manufacturing or any other process.

Polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, high- and low-density polyethylene, and polyethylene are widely polluting synthetic plastics. Apart from these, microplastics are classified into two major classes, primary and secondary, based on the nature of the plastic (Bejgarn et al., 2015). The primary microplastics are those which are intentionally made in the size < 5 mm whereas the secondary microplastics are the derivatives of the primary plastics. Several reports proved that plastics could exit in size < 1 μm and are known as nano plastic. Nano plastic is known to cause various ill effects on various aquatic organisms. For instance, the adsorption of nano plastics resulted in the reduction of body size and efficiency of photosynthesis (Besseling et al., 2014). The prolonged exposure to micro and nano plastics results in the accumulation of plastic particles in the digestive organs of aquatic animals. The ingestion of plastic particles into the gut affects the regular intake of food and decreases the digestion ability, which in turn affects the growth and development of the organism.

Apart from microplastics, large plastics also cause considerable damage to the aquatic ecosystem. Debris of large plastic is reported to disrupt marine animals by trapping them. Large debris of plastics like polyethylene bags, bottle caps, plastic fibers and pieces of Styrofoam were found in the stomach of dead bords and animals (Anbumani and Kakkar, 2018).

3.4.2: Pharmaceuticals

The advances in the field of medicine have prevented various diseases, decreased the rate of mortality and improved human health and wellbeing beyond expectations. These are achieved because of advancements in treatment procedures and the development of various pharmaceuticals (Sirés and Brillas, 2012). The use of pharmaceuticals has reached approximately 4500 billion doses by 2020. Being the topmost industry and controlling the world economy, the pharmaceuticals also have their darker side. The release of active pharmaceuticals into the environment has become the most serious threat to the aquatic ecosystem (Arnold et al., 2014). Pharmaceuticals, with their unique benefits to society, the increased usage and disposal of these pharmaceuticals have serious threats to the environment and ecosystem. Due to this, pharmaceuticals are considered the emerging pollutants (Costa et al., 2019). Pharmaceutical contaminants can be highly distinguished from other pollutants by various properties such as

•These have a molecular mass of < 500 Da

•Properties of these pollutants and the degree of ionization depend upon the pH of the existing environment

•Most pollutants are lipophilic, while some have water solubility also

•These have complex structures, shapes and also vary in functions

•These are high polar compounds with many ionizing groups

•Pharmaceutical pollutants tend to adsorb and distribute in a living system

Pharmaceutical pollutants are highly bioactive compared to other chemical pollutants designed to absorb and distribute in a living system readily. This makes the pollutant readily distributed in the contaminating ecosystem and very active at very low concentrations, potentially affecting the aquatic ecosystem. The Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient (API) found in human or veterinary drugs are a mixture of a parent molecule conjugated with a catalytic compound. These ingredients are usually more likely to dissolve in water. They can reach the aquatic ecosystem in various modes such as human excretion, disposal of unused drugs, and agricultural and livestock practices (Tijani et al., 2013).

Ibuprofen, acetaminophen, iomeprol, metoprolol, metformin, metamizole are the widely detected pharmaceuticals in water treatment plants. Prolonged exposure to these API in higher concentrations can lead to severe ill effects on the biota of the aquatic ecosystem than in a terrestrial ecosystem. Since the API is limited to penetrate through the soil (Deblonde and Hartemann, 2013). The continued discharge of these API can cause adverse effects on aquatic organisms. It can induce behavioral changes in the fish, affecting their basic metabolism, making them aggressive, and affecting their feeding activity and reproduction (Table