Environmental Micropollutants

Environmental Micropollutants, the latest volume in the Advances in Environmental Pollution Research series, presents the latest research on various environmental micropollutants, as well as their impacts on health and the economy, also addressing the best possible solutions to address the risks presented by these pollutants. The book covers solutions for dusts, infectious particles, heavy metals, organophosphates, atmospheric toxic organic micropollutants, fungal spores, pollutants from E-waste, and antibiotics threats, providing researchers working in environmental science and management with key knowledge to address this increasingly important concern.

These types of micropollutants can be present in water, air and soil and can harm health even in low quantities, hence this book covers the challenges these pollutants pose to the environment and human health, presenting practical solutions.

• Identifies key micropollutants in the environment and examines their impacts on human health and the economy
• Presents methods and treatment technologies for addressing the problem of micropollutants
• Offers the latest research on a variety of micropollutants and the best solutions for each

• Language: English
• Publisher: Elsevier Science
• Release date: Apr 8, 2022
• ISBN: 9780323906753

Book preview

Chapter 1: Introduction to environmental micropollutants

Naeem Akhtar Abbasia,*; Syed Umair Shahidb; Muzaffar Majida; Areej Tahira    a College of Earth and Environmental Sciences (CEES), University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan

b Centre for Integrated Mountain Research (CIMR), University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan

Abstract

Ever since the industrial revolution, plethora of hazardous chemicals are released from industrial, urban, and agricultural sources. These chemicals are released either in bulk or in trace quantity and eventually make their way to environment, soil, sediment, and biota through the food chain. Once released in the environment, these contaminants may cause serious health consequences. These pollutants are generally termed as environmental micropollutants (MPs). These micropollutants are mainly categorized under pesticides, persistent organic pollutants, flame retardants, hormones, endocrine disruptors, surfactants, trace metals, personal care products, and microplastics. These MPs are released either as a component or metabolites of the aforementioned categories. When adverse effects of micropollutants were established, various analytical methods were developed to investigate their quantity in various environmental compartments and biotic tissues. Finally, efforts are underway to restrict or minimize their use and proper disposal through national, regional, and international agreements. These micropollutants have become a real and modern environmental challenge, the mitigation of which is imperative to avoid future adverse health effects.

Keywords

Pharmaceuticals; Surfactants; Microplastics; Hormones; Pesticides

1.1: Introduction to micropollutants

Micropollutants (MPs) or emerging contaminants (ECs) are a vast and expanding array of anthropogenic compounds that have emerged greatly since industrialization and advancements in technology. These pollutants are present in different environmental matrices through different means of applications, transportation, disposal, and degradation. Furthermore, the physicochemical properties of MPs (solubility, vapor pressure, polarity) also determine their behavior, their toxicity, and their treatment methods. These contaminants emerge from synthetic compounds like cosmetics, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, steroid hormones, surfactants, and persistent organic pollutants (POPs), etc. (Bunke et al., 2019; Luo et al., 2014). To identify their occurrence, both sources and sinks need monitoring to develop distribution profiles for area of interest. Moreover, the regularly monitored data on MPs are required to determine their temporal and spatial variabilities (Brunsch, Langenhoff, Rijnaarts, Ahring, & Ter Laak, 2019; Gavrilescu, Demnerová, Aamand, Agathos, & Fava, 2015; Rehrl, Golovko, Ahrens, & Köhler, 2020). These MPs disseminate in environmental components like air, soil, and domestic wastewater but ultimately end up in water bodies, which are an emerging global problem. MPs can be adsorbed, or they can react with organic matter or clay minerals present in soils and sediments (Giebułtowicz, Kucharski, & Drzewicz, 2021). Scientists, policymakers, and stakeholders are therefore trying to regulate the reuse of wastewater for irrigation as it is an emerging major health concern (Rizzo et al., 2018).

The estimated global production of these MPs has increased from 1 million ton per annum to 400 million tons per annum from 1930 to 2000 (Gavrilescu et al., 2015). More than 100,000 compounds have been registered by European Union (EU). Among those, 30,000–70,000 are consumed worldwide on daily basis. EU also addressed the status of MPs in water bodies by setting priority substances in Water Framework Directive (Directive 2013/39/EC 2013) and implementing under Marine Strategy Framework Directive (Directive 2008/56/EC 2008). These priority substances covered trace metals/metalloids (TMs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The EU Commission Decision 495/2015 has also enlisted some MPs in the watch list like 17-alphaethinylestradiol (EE2), triallate 17-betaestradiol (E2), oxadiazon diclofenac, 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol, macrolide antibiotics, methiocarb, neonicotinoids, 2-ethylhexyl-4-methoxycinnamate, and estrone (E1) (Barbosa, Moreira, Ribeiro, Pereira, & Silva, 2016). However, nonylphenol (NP) and bisphenol-A (BPA) are the most monitored compounds (Bilal, Rasheed, Iqbal, & Yan, 2018).

Similarly, the NORMAN Network group identified approximately 970 emerging pollutants by using different monitoring methods (Bunke et al., 2019). Gago-Ferrero, Krettek, Fischer, Wiberg, and Ahrens (2018) found 160 potential pollutants out of 23,000 chemicals that are registered in Sweden. Moreover, industrial effluents are responsible for releasing around annual 300 million tons of man-made compounds into natural waters (Talib & Randhir, 2017). Many original research and review articles have been published regarding the occurrence, fate, toxicity, and treatment techniques for MPs in water resources (Chavoshani, Hashemi, Amin, & Ameta, 2020; Jiang, Zhou, & Sharma, 2013; Kwon et al., 2015; Luo et al., 2014; Tröger, Klöckner, Ahrens, & Wiberg, 2018; Virkutyte, Varma, & Jegatheesan, 2010). Some researchers (Müller, Zwiener, & Escher, 2020; Trinh, Duong, Strobel, & Le, 2020) have studied the effect of storm water on the MPs in river and the presence of MPs in the paddy soil as well. This chapter will give a brief overview of the major MPs existing in the environment along with their occurrence, sources, analytical, and remediation techniques.

1.1.1: Pesticides

Pesticides are both organic and inorganic compounds that are used to kill pests like insect, fungus, weeds etc. to avoid/minimize the damage to crops/plants through destruction, prevention, or mitigation. These pesticides are categorized and named according to their use. The inorganic pesticides and some plant extracts were used before 1940 for the pest control (Rana, 2006). While the synthetic organic compounds first came into use in 1938 with the discovery of DDT as insecticide and their usage continued even after the World War II (Matthews, 2006). The proceeding years lead to an increased shift in the production and use of synthetic pesticides globally (Rana, 2006). To date, four major types of synthetic pesticides are being used, such as organochlorines, substituted ureas, and triazines. These pesticides have been useful in many ways, e.g., increased crop yield and reduced pest-related diseases, but on the other hand, they are causing ecological and human health risks. Moreover, several biopesticides have been introduced as an alternative to above pesticides. All of these chemicals give optimum results when applied under integrated pest management approach.

1.1.2: Organochlorine pesticides

Organochlorines are one of the main subgroup of pesticides that have the ability to damage the nervous system of organisms (Walker, Hopkin, Silby, & Peakall, 2006). Organochlorine insecticides are known as highly lipophilic and persistent but they have very low water solubility. Due to long residence time and lipophilicity, these chemicals may enter into organisms and tend to bioaccumulate (Matthews, 2006; Walker et al., 2006). Therefore, organochlorine insecticides are of great concern for posing damage to ecosystem and human health. Dichlorodiphenylethanes, chlorinated cyclodienes (chlordanes), and hexachlorocyclohexanes are among the concerning organochlorines groups (Qiu et al., 2009).

DDT is an example of dichlorodiphenylethane pesticide that proved effective against vectors during World War II and then against pests in agriculture. Similarly, aldrin, dieldrin, and heptachlor are types of chlorinated cyclodienes that served the purpose of protection from various pests and vectors (e.g., tsetse fly). Similarly, hexachlorocyclo-hexanes (HCH) contain a mixture of isomers (Walker et al., 2006) but only g-isomer (g-HCH), or lindane, has been used as insecticide (Manahan, 2004).

1.1.3: Organophosphate insecticides

Organophosphates contain phosphorus molecule and are organic esters in nature (Rana, 2006). These chemicals are not only applied as insecticides but also served as chemical weapons during World War II (Walker et al., 2006). Now their applications have been limited to insecticides. Similar to organochlorines, these insecticides are lipophilic in nature and possess higher water solubility and less stability. Due to their lower stability, these compounds can break down into their metabolites through different processes (Walker et al., 2006). The common examples of organophosphates are phosphorothioates such as methyl parathion and chlorpyrifos (Manahan, 2004).

1.1.4: Herbicides

Herbicides are a group of pesticides that are used to control weed growth. They have been classified into pre- or postemergence, broad spectrum, or selective herbicides (Matthews, 2006). Herbicides also differ on the basis of chemical structure; for instance, triazines and substituted ureas are widely used and possess persistent and toxic nature (Manahan, 2004). Among triazinic herbicide, atrazine is extensively used. Similarly, simazine is also used to control weed (Strandberg & Scott-Fordsmand, 2002).

Triazinic compounds target photosystem II of the weeds, thus disrupting the electron transport chain in chloroplasts (Corbett, Wright, & Baillie, 1974). This makes weeds unable to break down herbicides (Manahan, 2004). These herbicides’ low vapor pressure and wide range of water solubility (5 and 750 mg/L) can pose harm to surroundings (Sabik, Jeannot, & Rondeau, 2000). Substituted ureas (diuron, isoproturon) are derived by the substitution of hydrogen with several chemical groups. These herbicides possess a mode of action similar to triazines, inhibiting photosynthesis (Corbett et al., 1974).

1.1.5: Persistent organic pollutants

POPs are characterized due to their long residence time in environment, travel to long distances, hydrophilic nature, and toxic effects on humans and other living organisms. These pollutants (pesticides, industrial chemicals, and unintentional products) are classified by Stockholm convention for elimination and restriction. Stockholm convention is an international environmental treaty having 152 signatory countries that aim to eliminate the use and production of POPs. Initially, 12 POPs, including organochlorine pesticides, PCBs, and dioxin and furans, were found and listed under Stockholm convention after they have been proved to cause adverse health effects. Till today, more than 24 POPs have been enlisted under Annexes A and B, while some chemicals are under consideration, e.g., Dechlorane plus, methoxychlor, and UV-238 (POPRC, 2021). These POPs include many emerging chemicals, mainly flame retardants (FRs) such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) etc., which are listed under hazardous chemicals list by Stockholm convention.

Moreover, many countries have developed regulations and monitoring methods in order to eliminate/reduce the production and use of these pollutants. For instance, methods have been introduced by US EPA and ISO for screening of different POPs in various environmental matrices. Besides these methods, many studies have been conducted on the identification, analytical techniques, and remediation of POPs. The main challenge for POPs is that usually they have low vapor pressure that makes them travel to different regions like Antarctica, which has no production units (Ma et al., 2014). The presence of POPs in food plants is also a major concern as the irrigation water is contaminated with pollutants that can pose potential health risks (Ngweme et al., 2021).

1.1.6: Pharmaceuticals

Pharmaceuticals are synthetic chemicals having molecular weights 200–1000 Da and consumed to relieve the ailment of living organisms (Kümmerer, 2009). It is estimated that in Europe, above 4000 pharmaceuticals are released after being used by humans and animals (Mompelat, Le Bot, & Thomas, 2009). As the regulatory bodies are trying to restrict several other MPs to eliminate/decrease their use, pharmaceutical compounds are expected to increase owing to their positive impacts on health. In the late 1970s, human drugs were first detected in environmental samples (Hignite & Azarnoff, 1977). However in the 1990s, analytical methods were developed and the identification of harmful effects on ecosystem was done for some pharmaceutical compounds (Halling-Sørensen et al., 1998; Hirsch, Ternes, Haberer, & Kratz, 1996; Ternes, Hirsch, Mueller, & Haberer, 1998).

Among pharmaceuticals, a potential group of contaminants have been detected in water bodies, such as anticonvulsants, nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), antibiotics, and lipid regulators. NSAID drugs have analgesic, antipyretic, and antiinflammatory effects, e.g., ibuprofen (IBF, C13H18O2) and diclofenac (DCF, C14H11Cl2NO2). Anticonvulsant drugs are used to treat epileptic seizures such as carbamazepine (CBZ, C15H12N2O). It is estimated that about 1000 tons CBZ is used globally (Zhang, Geißen, & Gal, 2008). Among lipid regulators, gemfibrozil (GEM, C15H22O3) is used to lower lipid levels. Antibiotics include substances like penicillins, sulfonamides, tetracyclines, and fluoroquinolones. Erythromycin (C37H67NO13) is a macrolide antibiotic used to treat human, animals, and aquatic organisms. Trimethoprim (TMP, C14H18N4O3) is used for curing of urinary infections. All of these pharmaceuticals are used to treat different organisms but they are not completely metabolized in their bodies and as a result excreted through urine and feces (Heberer, 2002). The rate of excretion mainly depends on the compound and its mode of application. Moreover, the metabolites must also be monitored in order to prevent antibiotic-resistant genes in environment. Table 1.1 shows some of the compounds along with their potential metabolites.

Table 1.1

Pharmaceutical compounds with excretion rates and potential metabolites.

Pharmaceuticals are mainly present in wastewater/sewage and soil where livestock manure is applied. For instance, Ghirardini, Grillini, and Verlicchi (2019) reported that some antibiotics like enrofloxacin, oxytetracycline, and chlortetracycline were found at alarming levels in raw and treated swine manure (in soil). These compounds can contribute to high risk in the presence of sulfamethazine. Therefore, when these compounds end up in river and oceans, they can affect the aquatic life through the disruption of biological activities.

1.1.7: Endocrine disruptors

Some steroid hormones are used to regulate endocrine and immune systems of body. But these hormones and other MPS might also be responsible for disrupting endocrine systems. The major classes of natural hormones are estrogens, androgens, progestogens, and corticoids. Besides natural hormones, dexamethasone, ethinyl estradiol, and mestranol hormones are synthetically manufactured. Among these compounds, estrogen-disrupting chemicals like estrone (E1), 17b-estradiol (E2), estriol (E3) (natural estrogens), and ethinyl estradiol (EE2) (synthetic estrogen) are especially monitored in freshwaters and wastewater treatment plants (Rodgers-Gray et al., 2000). The main sources of these compounds reported are untreated wastewater discharges, manure runoff, sewage sludge applications, fish food (Fent, Weston, & Caminada, 2006), and excreta of humans (Lange et al., 2002). The excretion rates of these compounds depend on gender, pregnancy, and menopause. For instance, E1 is excreted more in pregnant women (1194 mg/day) as compared to pre-/postmenopausal women. On the other hand, men excrete E1 at the rate of 3.9 mg/day (Liu, Kanjo, & Mizutani, 2009). It has been reported that natural estrogens excreted in the form of sulfate do not degrade easily as compared to glucuronide conjugates, which transform into free estrogens (D'Ascenzo et al., 2003).

1.1.8: Surfactants

Surfactants are man-made compounds that are mainly utilized in detergents, textiles, polymer, and paper industries and classified as anionic, cationic, and nonionic surfactants. In 1997, alkylphenol ethoxylates (nonionic) production increased up to 500,000 tons among surfactants (Virkutyte and Varma, 2010) and nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPE) shared 80% of this production (Brook, Crookes, Johnson, Mitchell, & Watts, 2005). The main concern is that NPES can be biotransformed into nonylphenol (NP, C15H24O), which is not only toxic to aquatic organisms but will also disrupt their estrogen hormones (Birkett and Lester, 2002; Soares, Guieysse, Jefferson, Cartmell, & Lester, 2008).

1.1.9: Personal care products

Personal care products are comprised of various products that aid in personal hygiene and beautification like skin care products, soaps, shampoos, dental care, fragrances, insect killers, etc. According to some studies, parabens are a part of more than 22,000 cosmetic products (Andersen, 2008), while in EU, about 350 tons of triclosan (TCS) is being manufactured for different purposes (Singer, Müller, Tixier, & Pillonel, 2002). These products might contain large amounts of synthetic organic compounds like antimicrobial disinfectants, preservatives, and sunscreen agents, which are continuously becoming the part of water bodies along with other environmental matrices (Kunz & Fent, 2006; Pal, He, Jekel, Reinhard, & Gin, 2014). Owing to toxicological properties and extensive usage, TCS (C12H7Cl3O2) and parabens are significantly important chemicals (Kolpin et al., 2002). These pollutants may also leach into the groundwater through runoff/sewage. They not only have a potential to mix in wastewater but may also adsorb to soil, sediments, and chemicals to form conjugates. At the end, aquatic life will be posed to the harmful effects of these pollutants.

1.1.10: Microplastics

Microplastics are being considered as an emerging issue globally due to their extensive distribution in the environment. These are the small fragments of different plastic types, size less than 5 mm, emitted either at the manufacturing site or through weathering of plastic products. To date, MPs have been detected not only in environmental components but also among various aquatic organisms. These pollutants have been known to cause physical harm through entanglement and ingestion to humans as well as other organisms. The MPs themselves may not cause chemical damage to humans but as a carrier of other toxins, additives, and plasticizers, these pollutants could create negative health impacts on humans. According to Ateia et al. (2020) about 15% of Americans’ caloric intake, MPs consumption differs in terms of age and gender. The consumption range may vary from 74,000 to 121,000 particles annually depending on the dietary intake and inhalation rate. The microfragments, spheres, and fibers are released from personal care products, synthetic fibers, larger plastic litter, mulching films used in agriculture etc. emitted during production, transportation, and usage. Therefore, these MPs along with nanoplastics (< 1 μm) are getting attention due to their increasing concentrations and suspected health risks to marine life (Hale, Seeley, La Guardia, Mai, & Zeng, 2020).

1.1.11: Trace metals

Trace metals (TMs) are classified as naturally occurring metals/metalloids that tend to accumulate in the environment and have resistance to biodegradation. Some of these metals are essential for proper body functioning, like Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Mo, and Zn, while some are known as contaminants such as Cd, B, Al, N, Ar, and Pb. All these TMs, including the essential ones, become toxic for the environment and organisms when they are present in excess. Above the threshold limit, TMs such as nickel, copper, and cobalt can accumulate in humans and create chronic and acute effects on their nervous system and organic functions (Wang, Zhu, Bai, Luque, & Xuan, 2017). Therefore, it is recommended to reduce these TMs as much as possible before discharge into the water. Sediments and organic matter are considered the sink for these TMs as they pose toxicity to the benthic and aquatic organisms. These TMs can increase in the aquatic environment due to anthropogenic activities like mining, processing of metals, petroleum and chemical production, coal combustion, pesticides, and compost usage (Ismail et al., 2016; Monferran, Garnero, Wunderlin, & de los Angeles Bistoni, 2016; Neyestani et al., 2016). This indicates that TMs might get transported through adsorption on other MPs. Therefore, source identification is necessary for these TMs in order to limit their traveling through environmental components.

1.2: Analysis techniques

Many techniques have been used to analyze the MPs in various types of environmental matrices such as food, soil, water, air, sediment dust, etc. Mostly, gas chromatography (GC) and liquid chromatography (LC) assisted with mass spectrometry (MS) are used with different ionization modes for organic pollutants. It has been reported that these instruments can be used for urgent quantification by using the recorded recovery values. For instance, in Japan 120 MPs were detected from soil debris using a comprehensive target analysis technique to assess health risks from earthquake debris (Matsuo et al., 2020). For routine monitoring of drinking water, cost-effective and small volume of samples can be used to detect MPs (Karki et al., 2020). For analyzing trace metals/metalloids, inductive coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) gives better outcomes (Azaroff, Miossec, Lanceleur, Guyoneaud, & Monperrus, 2020). Micro- and nanoplastics are more commonly detected using Raman spectroscopy and FTIR instruments. Moreover, the use of geographical information system, including spatial interpolation techniques, can be very useful for generating digital maps that not only indicate the concentration of various MPs at different locations but also help in analyzing the spatial variability of MPs in the area of interest.

1.3: Remediation techniques

Due to the potential health risks and ecological risks associated with MPs, various treatment options have been proposed. Some of the MPs are removed at wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). However, these plants were previously designed to reduce organic content, nitrate, and phosphorus compounds (Salimi et al., 2017). In case of POPs and some emerging MPs, activated sludge-based WWTPs have proved great efficiencies as compared to other processes such as biological treatments and advanced treatment options (Besnault et al., 2015; Devault, Néfau, Levi, & Karolak, 2017; Devault et al., 2020; Kasprzyk-Hordern, Dinsdale, & Guwy, 2009; Gilbert, Gasperi, Rocher, Lorgeoux, & Chebbo, 2012; Guillossou et al., 2019; Ting and Praveena, 2017). On the other hand, sludge-based treatments have very low removal efficiency (10%) for some pharmaceuticals (Paxeus, 2004; Grandclément et al., 2017). In contrast, Biofor WWTP has shown 92 ± 4% removal efficiency for paracetamol (acetaminophen) and caffeine (Devault et al., 2020). Similarly, using a combination of marine microalgae (Chaetoceros muelleri) and biochar can give optimum removal efficiency for pharmaceuticals and personal care products like MPs (Mojiri, Baharlooeian, Kazeroon, Farraji, & Lou, 2020). For many hazardous chemicals, especially those that are persistent in nature, a comprehensive incineration is recommended for their complete elimination from the environment.

1.4: Conclusion

In a nutshell, MPs are one of the merging environmental challenges, the timely mitigation of which is necessary to avoid future adverse health effects. To develop a complete plan against MPs, the regulatory authorities need to work with scientists in close collaboration to identify potential MPs by using advanced techniques. The routine monitoring of registered MPs, as well as unknown MPs, is required to decrease their load in sinks, e.g., water and soil. Urban runoff and livestock manure treatment options need more work to minimize the impacts on aquatic organisms. The groundwater resources need assessment regarding different potential MPs. This will help to develop remediation techniques and reduce the impacts on human health as well as on the ecosystem.

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* Corresponding author.

Chapter 2: Industrial chemicals as micropollutants in the environment

Muhammad Afzaal*; Iqra Mazhar; Rizwan Rasheed; Faiza Sharif; Waqas Ud Din Khan; Nusrat Bashir; Syeda Saira Iqbal; Abdullah Khan    Sustainable Development Study Centre, Government College University, Lahore, Pakistan

* Corresponding author.

Abstract

Plastic poses significant risks at every stage of its life cycle to Earth's environment, and what is toxic for environment is equivalently toxic for human health. In this book chapter, we focus on downstream effects of plastic life cycle, when plastic reaches the environment, especially thermal degradation or combustion of plastic waste that occurs during recycling and incineration process. Plastic is ubiquitous, and due to versatility of properties, it is almost used in all fields of life with numerous applications. Presently, plastics are mostly produced by fossil fuels (nonrenewable resources) and by nonbiodegradable method that convert its blessing to curse for today's world. Plastics accumulate in the environment cause littering and contaminating/chocking aquifers and waterways. To overcome the disadvantages of plastics, it is important to sensibly dispose end-of-life plastics. There are various end-of-life options of plastic wastes including reuse, recycling, landfills, and incineration, but end of life does not equate end of impacts. Reuse is the most preferable option while other processes increase environmental burden by producing toxic chemicals and emissions as by-products. Mechanical recycling and incineration (energy recovery) involve combustion of plastic waste that in return produces toxic ash (still needs final disposal/landfilling) and atmospheric pollutants (dioxins, furans, heavy metals, acidic gases, CO, CO2, NOx, and particulate matter). So it is just the conversion of one form of waste to another. Range of adverse health effects are associated with toxic emissions released by plastic waste burning including reproductive and developmental disorders, chronic heart or lung disease, oxidative stress, necrosis, apoptosis, genotoxicity, congenital anomalies, dermatological diseases, cancer, and neurodegeneration. So it is direly needed to turn off the toxic tap by changing the civic habit of using plastics. Moreover, concrete efforts will be required at all levels of society to minimize long-term harm of plastic pollution.

Keywords

Plastic waste; Mechanical recycling; Chemical recycling; Incineration; Environmental burden; Health effects

2.1: Introduction

The term plastic originates from a Greek word plastikos which means moldable (capable to adopt any shape/form). Plastics belong to the family of materials including nylon, polytetrafluoroethylene, and polyethylene (Cantor & Watts, 2011). Plastics are human (man-made) invention that surround us everywhere and become integral in our lives because of undeniable advantage: easily shaped, lightweight, resistance to chemicals and corrosion, resilience, ease of processing, insulation property, durability, transparency, color fastness, etc. These all properties made plastic ubiquitous and able to replace many traditional materials like glass, metals, wood, paper, and even concrete (often more expensive than plastic) (Crawford & Martin, 2020).

2.1.1: Historical perspective

Plastics are usually considered a recent development, but in actual fact, as a part of polymers family, plastics are the main ingredient of plant and animal life such as cellulose and shellac (natural form of plastics). The historical perspective also briefed that the first man-made plastic was made up of cellulose that treated with nitric acid (thermoplastic nitrocellulose called Parkesine) by Alexander Parkes in 1850s. After Parkes, in 1869, John Wesley Hyatt invented Celluloid that was derived from alcoholized camphor and cellulose. Celluloid was the first man-made polymer that got commercial success. Next product, after cellulose nitrate, was formaldehyde (advance the technology of plastics), and Leo Hendrik Baekeland combined formaldehyde and phenol to form Bakelite (first synthetic thermoset) in 1907. After 2 years, in 1909, Leo Baekeland used the term plastic materials for the items/products that made up of macromolecules such as elastomers, artificial fibers, and resins. In the world of plastics, the main invention concocts during World Wars era (I and II). The materials that develop during this era include polyvinyl chloride (PVC), cellophane, poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), polyethylene, polyurethane, nylon, and polystyrene. After polystyrene, the major development occurred in 1945 by Giulio Natta who produced polypropylene having high mechanical resistance, inert to chemicals and high temperature (above 100°C). On the basis of polypropylene production, Giulio Natta was awarded Nobel Prize in 1963 (Chalmin, 2019; Gilbert, 2017; Streit-Bianchi, Cimadevila, & Trettnak, 2020; Thompson, Swan, Moore, & vom Saal, 2009). Fig. 2.1 shows the time line in the history of plastic.

Fig. 2.1

Fig. 2.1 Key events in the development of plastic.

2.1.2: Global production of plastic

Historical development shows that plastic invented in early twenties and its production reached to the peak within hundred years, and now, it is difficult to eradicate the plastics from our lives (major challenge in 21st century). Other industries in the world have not experienced such growth in production as plastic. Steel global production rose from 600 to 1700 Mt, from 1980 to 2017, while aluminum global production rose from 14 to 60 Mt, from 1980 to 2017. Comparatively, plastic production increased to twentyfold (more than 25 million Mt) between 1950 and 1970, and the West was most concentrated, at the time, in plastic production: 8 Mt in United States, 4 Mt in England and Japan, 1.3 Mt in United Kingdom, France, and Italy, and the Soviet Union produced 1.45 Mt. Worldwide, 60 Mt of plastic was produced in 1968, and in 2000, production reached to 187 Mt. By 2010, 265 Mt of plastic was produced, and in 2017, the production reached to 348 Mt. In 2018, global plastic production was estimated to about 359 Mt, and China accounts for 30% of world's production. About 8.3 billion Mt of plastic has been generated, since 1950, with 8.5% of average annual rate of growth rate, that is 1.5 Mt (Chalmin, 2019; PlasticsEurope and EPRO, 2019; Ryberg, Laurent, & Hauschild, 2018). Fig. 2.2 shows the global growth in plastic production:

Fig. 2.2

Fig. 2.2 Global production of plastic (million metric tons). Modified from Chalmin, P. (2019). The history of plastics: From the capitol to the Tarpeian rock, reinventing plastics. The Journal of Field Action: Field Actions Science Reports, (19), 6.

According to World Trade Organization Report (2020), production, use, and unmanaged disposal of plastic waste are more challenging and concerning for underdeveloped nations, because presently they are the large manufacturers, consumers, importers, and exporters of various types of plastics. Production of plastic in developing countries, early couple of decades of 21st century, increased significantly at the rate of above the world's average. In result, overall, Global South countries (including China) have transcended developed countries in plastics production. Collaborative participation of developing countries ramped up the output of plastics from 43.5% (2009) to 58% (2018) while combined share of developed counties reduced from 52.5% to 39% and stake of transitional economies showed equilibrium at 3% in respective years. Only in Pakistan, production of plastics vigorously increases with annual average growth rate of 15% with annual production capacity of 624, 200 Mt/year (Mubashir, 2012; World Trade Organization, 2020).

In 2016, developing countries account for half of global plastic use/consumption (developed countries—44% and transitional economies—6%). Plastic consumption in developing countries increases because of their larger population. In Global South, plastic consumption is 27 kg per capita/annum while 139 kg per capita/annum in North America, Western Europe consumed 136 kg per capita/annum, and in Japan, 108 kg per capita/annum of plastic utilization was reported. However, in developing countries, per capita consumption is thriving due to urban sprawl, shifting of consumption pattern, and rising income. Overall, the use of plastic has increased twentyfold in the past half century and is predicted to increase double in the next 20 years (World Economic Forum, 2016; World Trade Organization, 2020). In the current scenario, during the pandemic disease COVID-19, production and usage of plastic in the world has increased due to heighten demand of personal protective equipment (PPE) such as face masks. Moreover, PPEs for hospital workers to avoid the spread of pandemic (such as gloves, face masks, scrubs, covers, caps, goggles/glasses) and many devices to save people lives from pandemic (such as COVID-19 test kit, respirators, tubes, syringes, catheters, suction probes, oropharyngeal cannulas) increase the demand of single-use plastic that leads to the complexity in plastic waste management. So plastic pollution which is already a greater threat for the world exacerbates further because of sudden boom in using various single-use plastic products for protection and safety of people and prevention of spread of disease (De Sousa, 2020; Grippaudo et al., 2020; Patrício Silva et al., 2020).

So it is important to mention here that the aspects of daily life have changed due to COVID-19 that ultimately changes our way of lives of producing and consuming plastic. So the information (facts, figures, projection, etc.) mentioned in this chapter will may make some difference in future.

2.2: Life cycle of plastics

2.2.1: Production of plastics

Production of plastics involves series of steps that are broadly divided into two segments: upstream (manufacturing of polymers) and downstream (polymers conversion into wide range of plastic articles) (Mubashir, 2012). Upstream chain of plastic manufacturing requires source or raw material which is mostly acquired from nonrenewable resource, that is, crude oil, natural gas, etc. (fossil feedstocks). Above 90% of plastics are produced from nonrenewable resources (fossil origin) that represent 6% of worldwide oil consumption, and if the use of plastics continues to grow, with the current rate, as expected then plastic sector will might attribute to 20% of global oil utilization by 2050 (World Economic Forum, 2016). Another raw material includes renewable organic sources (vegetable oil, starch, sugarcane, corn, etc.) that only contribute 0.1% to 0.2% in plastic production. So, by source, plastics are divided into two types: nonbiodegradable plastics and biodegradable plastics. Traditionally, manufacturing source of plastics is fossil feedstock reserves (nonrenewable/nonbiodegradable) from where the virgin fossil fuels are extracted by mining and drilling for further cracking process. In a petrochemical process, extracted fossil fuel is cracked producing multifarious products from which naphtha is passed to the next stage of producing monomer. Monomer is further converted into polymer of desirable grade according to the requirement/application. Accomplishment needs blending of polymers (molten state) with additives (such as fillers, pigments, flame retardants, and stabilizers) to achieve desirable characteristics, part of granulation and polymerization process or compounding operation. Further conversion of polymer (usually in the form of pellets, flakes, granulates, or powder) occurs by various processing methods to produce desirable plastic articles (downstream process) (Alejandro & Peter, 2014). Four main methods that are commonly used for plastic processing include extrusion (molten plastic is forced to extrude out from the die opening in a continuous length), injection molding (molten plastic is forced to protrude out from a nozzle to mold cavity), blow molding (molten plastic resin is blown into a mold cavity to produce hollow articles), and rotational molding/rotomolding (plastic material fed to heated mold and allow the closed mold to rotate biaxially) (Arvanitoyannis, 2013; Riley, 2012). So by considering type of process, plastic products are classified as shown in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1

Apart from conventional source (fossil fuels), plastics are also manufactured through plants by adopting three main approaches (Gerngross & Slater, 2000; Havstad, 2020; Hillmyer, 2017):

(i)Conversion of plant sugars into plastic: In this process, plants (such as corn) were grown, harvested, and transported to factory for further processing to yield sugar. Sugar is then fermented to lactic acid molecules that further converted to plastic called polylactide (PLA).

(ii)Growing plastic inside microorganism: In this process, plants (such as corn) were grown, harvested, and transported to factory for further processing to yield sugar. Sugar then undergoes bacterial fermentation and transformed into plastic inside the bacterial cells that further opened and allowed the plastic to separate, concentrate, and dry.

(iii)Manufacturing of plastic in corn or other crops: Corn stover harvested from field crop and transported to factory. By using solvents, plastics were extracted from stovers. Further, through distillation, solvents were separated from plastic.

Plastic produced through corn stoves or bacterial fermentation is called polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA). PLA and PHA (plant-derived plastics) are biodegradable plastic, minor share in plastic market, but consume large amount of energy as compared to petrochemical plastic (Gerngross & Slater, 2000; Havstad, 2020; Hillmyer, 2017).

Recyclables (such as plastic components, scraps, rejects, and offcuts) are also used to produce new desirable plastic articles that are one of the best options of waste management. For this purpose, the first step is to wash and sort out the collected recyclables. After washing, waste plastics are shredded and transported to recycling plants (modified with additives and fillers) and heated. Further, the prepared resin undergoes extrusion process and then converted into pellets, granulates, flakes, or powder. These products are the substitute of virgin fossil feedstock and used as a secondary raw material (Alejandro & Peter, 2014; Arvanitoyannis,