Sustainable Water Engineering

By Colin A. Booth and Kemi Adeyeye

Sustainable Water Engineering introduces the latest thinking from academic, stakeholder and practitioner perspectives who address challenges around flooding, water quality issues, water supply, environmental quality and the future for sustainable water engineering. In addition, the book addresses historical legacies, strategies at multiple scales, governance and policy.

• Offers well-structured content that is strategic in its approach
• Covers up-to-date issues and examples from both developed and developing nations
• Include the latest research in the field that is ideal for undergraduates and post-graduate researchers
• Presents real world applications, showing how engineers, environmental consultancies and international institutions can use the concepts and strategies

• Language: English
• Publisher: Elsevier Science
• Release date: Nov 27, 2020
• ISBN: 9780128164044

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Preface

The purpose of Sustainable Water Engineering is threefold. Firstly, it integrates the concept of ‘sustainability' with engineering infrastructure and approaches to provide solutions across the water industry. Secondly, it gives real-world examples of the ways in which engineers or engineering principles have been used to apply these concepts by introducing the latest thinking from academic, stakeholder and practitioner perspectives. Thirdly, it investigates how these principles can deliver sustainable water supplies, of sufficient quality, at scale and which principle is cost effective.

Sustainable Water Engineering covers issues around the supply of quality water and its management, as well as challenges around surface water in urban, rural, developed and developing contexts. It tackles flooding, water quality, water supply, environmental quality and the future for sustainable water engineering. In addition, it addresses historical legacies, the implementation of integrated strategies at multiple scales and the policies and governance required to encourage their use. It also includes worldwide case studies whereby these innovative principles have been successfully implemented by water utility operators.

The book includes latest research in the field, presenting real-world applications, to show how engineers, environmental consultancies and international institutions can apply the concepts and strategies presented throughout the book. Practical and accessible, it is a resource across academia, for practitioners and stakeholders working for engineering and water companies, local authorities and water-related consultancies.

CHAPTER 1

From taps to toilets and ponds to pipes–A paradigm shift in sustainable water engineering

Colin A. Bootha,*, Susanne M. Charlesworthb, Kemi Adeyeyec

aArchitecture and the Built Environment, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK bCoventry University, Coventry, UK cArchitecture and Civil Engineering, University of Bath, Bath, UK

*Corresponding author.

Abstract

This chapter introduces the main themes in the book, contextualising them in terms of current issues of sustainability, in terms of infrastructure, buildings, businesses and behaviours. The role of the United Nations 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) is discussed; they are integral to the achievement of sustainable water engineering principles, in particular the aims encapsulated in SDG6, the Water SDG, whereby the stated ambition is clean, accessible water for all. The influence of engineering in achieving all of the SDGs, their interdependence and complexity is critically evaluated. Droughts, water shortages, flooding – these current issues are discussed at a variety of scales, from the single household, to the river catchment using sustainably designed, operated and maintained infrastructure. There is a critical balance to be struck between water resources management, sustainability and engineered approaches; furthermore, the chapter concludes, human behaviour and behaviour change must be accounted for, with community engagement vital in striving to achieve sustainable water engineering.

Keywords

United nations sustainable development goals; wastewater; drought; floods; community engagement

1.1 Introduction

Contemporary water engineering extends beyond the traditional teachings of hydrology and hydraulics to incorporate environmental, technological, managerial, cultural, and societal issues. Current and anticipated water crises can be deemed the intended and/or unintended consequences of long-term changes (i.e. slow evolution) of social norms and values (or more broadly, culture), ideology or political systems, which are not typically anticipated or accounted for in coping with water-related issues [17]. The recognition and integration of these issues allows water engineers to understand, unravel and contribute towards solving both local and global challenges (Fig. 1.1), and make a stepwise change in the delivery of sustainable infrastructure, sustainable buildings, sustainable businesses, and sustainable behaviours.

Fig. 1.1 Dealing with the effects of extreme weather events is amongst the portfolio of activities facing today's water engineer: (A) the dried-out reservoir bed of the dammed Berg River, in Cape Town, South Africa (in 2018); (B) high street and retail premises partly-submerged by floodwaters in Shropshire, England (in 2020).

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) represent a blueprint towards the achievement of a better and more sustainable future for everyone.¹ The 17 SDGs are an international attempt to address the challenges that societies face, including those related to poverty, inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, peace, and justice. Water is central to most SDGs. The SDG outcomes are interdependent with complex couplings between human, technical and natural systems [23] in which water engineers will play a fundamental role towards their success.

Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG–6) focuses on promoting access to water and sanitation for everyone. This SDG aimed at ensuring availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all is probably the greatest challenge we face in water resources management [29]. Towards this, the United Nations states Clean, accessible water for all is an essential part of the world we want to live in and there is sufficient fresh water on the planet to achieve this. However, due to bad economics or poor infrastructure, millions of people including children die every year from diseases associated with inadequate water supply, sanitation, and hygiene. Water scarcity, poor water quality and inadequate sanitation negatively impact food security, livelihood choices and educational opportunities for poor families across the world. At the current time, more than 2 billion people are living with the risk of reduced access to freshwater resources and by 2050, at least one in four people is likely to live in a country affected by chronic or recurring shortages of fresh water. Drought specifically afflict some of the world's poorest countries, worsening hunger, and malnutrition. Fortunately, there has been great progress made in the past decade regarding drinking sources and sanitation, whereby over 90 percent of the world's population now has access to improved sources of drinking water. To improve sanitation and access to drinking water, there needs to be increased investment in management of freshwater ecosystems and sanitation facilities on a local level in several developing countries within Sub–Saharan Africa, Central Asia, Southern Asia, Eastern Asia and South–Eastern Asia [27].

The other SDGs further highlight the pivotal contribution of water engineering to the attainment of sustainability [28]. For instance, infrastructure either directly or indirectly influence all 17 of the SDGs, including 121 of the 169 targets (72 percent). For 5 of the 17 SDG goals (SDGs 3, 6, 7, 9 and 11), all the targets are influenced by infrastructure; whereas, for 15 of the SDGs more than half of the targets are influenced by infrastructure. Water infrastructure includes wastewater and sanitation services (Fig. 1.2), and infrastructure systems to protect against flooding, as well as water supply, and has therefore, overall, the largest direct influence across all SDG targets [26].

Fig. 1.2 Protecting society, wildlife and the environment from polluting wastewater: (A) a wastewater primary settlement treatment tank; and (B) a wastewater secondary aeration treatment lane part of a sewage treatment facility in the West Midlands, England.

Meeting the UN SDGs is not straightforward. For example, efforts to achieve the targets for clean water and sanitation can have unintended consequences on food and energy security and can contribute to environmental degradation [17]. The importance of the right sustainable water engineering to achieve each SGD goals becomes clearer. SDG–1, which focuses on ending poverty in all its forms everywhere, highlights several hundred million people still live in extreme poverty and struggle with basic needs of access to water and sanitation. For most, marginalised water access exacerbates levels of poverty. Poor or inequitable water infrastructure can make water unaffordable for the poor; leading to people with already limited resources having to obtain water from far distances or having to pay exorbitantly for someone to transport water to them in order to meet their basic water needs [2]. SDG–2 and SDG–3 target zero hunger and aims to promote good health and well–being. They seek to improve sanitation and hygiene across all ages. The challenge, especially in developing countries, of inadequate access to safe water, improved hygiene, and sanitation facilities on one hand, and increased frequency and intensity of resource stress on the other, impact on the livelihood, productivity, health and well–being of those affected [22]. These SDGs also acknowledge the pressures that climate change is placing on food security through increasing natural disasters linked to drought and flooding. Today, land–use and food systems also account for a quarter of greenhouse–gas emissions, over 90 percent of scarcity–weighted water use, most losses of biodiversity, overexploitation of fisheries, eutrophication through nutrient overload and pollution of water and air [23]. New and innovative water engineering solutions can help mitigate the negative impacts of current practices and support new agricultural practices to help deliver SDG–2. –SDG–4 and SDG–5 pursue quality education and promotes gender equality. This appeals for improvements in water and electricity access to schools. It also recognizes that without safe drinking water, adequate sanitation, and hygiene facilities, it is disproportionately harder for women and girls to lead safe, productive, and healthy lives. SDG–7, which ensures access to affordable and clean energy, intends to progress the use of renewable energy from water, solar and wind power. Developing clean energy can benefit populations in developing countries in the long run, but it can also compromise other SDG goals. However, this SDG may problematise other SDGs, such as those promoting the protection of water related ecosystems (SDG 6.6) [20]. Therefore, engineers have a role in maintaining the delicate balance between natural processes, environmental, economic, and social needs. This includes the engineer's role in achieving SDG–9, which encourages investment in infrastructure crucial to achieving sustainable development and empowering communities across many countries. SDGs related to industrialization, like SDG–9 for industry, need to consider and reconcile with other SDGs (e.g. SDG 6.3 regarding water quality and protecting ecosystems). Engineered solutions that impact on natural water quality and systems; such as SDG–11, which aims for sustainable cities and communities, but acknowledges that rapid urbanization is exerting pressure on fresh water supplies, sewage, the living environment, and public health. SDG–12, which addresses responsible consumption and production, concedes that excessive use of water is contributing to global water stress. Engineering and technological solutions, for example water efficient irrigation at the large sale, or for domestic activities such as showering, have been shown to go a long way to reducing water waste. SDG–13, urges action to combat climate change, accepts sea levels are rising, weather events are becoming more extreme and, consequently, droughts and floods are becoming commonplace. Therefore, the use of engineering solutions, such as Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS), combined with recycling and reuse schemes are highly beneficial and need to be more prevalent particularly in urban areas. SDG–14, looks to conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources, accepting that careful management of these resources are a fundamental feature of a sustainable future, because coastal waters are deteriorating due to pollution and eutrophication. Soft engineered flood attenuation (e.g. swales and integrated wastewater treatment and reuse systems) can help to reduce the contamination of water bodies and the impact on associated ecologies. This is particularly useful as SDG–15, which is concerned with continuing life on earth, appreciates water plays a key role in protecting biodiversity and improving land productivity. SDG–16, which promotes peace and justice, knows hydro–politics is important to promote peaceful and inclusive societies. Thus, SDG–17, which seeks to revitalise the role of partnerships becomes important as it identifies that all stakeholders (from individuals, organisations and governments) need to operate as a partnership built upon shared principles, values and vision. This relates to SDG 6.B, which emphasises participatory governance and community consultation related to water management [20].

Humans have significantly influenced and have been influenced by the hydrological regime [31]. Access to water has always been fundamental to the evolution of villages, towns, and cities. Some of the earliest known settlements across all countries tended to locate themselves close to available supplies of freshwater (e.g. nearby a river or a spring) until the pioneering civil engineers of their time realised they could design systems to transfer water over long distances using aqueducts or similar infrastructure. These systems enabled the delivery of potable water to large populations so they could prosper and, moreover, allowed farmers to irrigate their fields so they could grow/supply food for themselves and surrounding settlements (e.g. people of the Byzantine Empire or Inca people of Machu Picchu city) [14].

Engineered civil infrastructures are also needed to remove unwanted wastewater away from settlements. Faecal contaminated water puts people at risk of contracting dysentery, cholera, typhoid, schistosomiasis, trachoma, and intestinal worms [30], so it is a necessity to collect, remove, treat, and dispose of wastewater appropriately. Ever since Dr. John Snow, a public–health worker, investigated a severe cholera outbreak in Soho, London, in 1854, and identified that faecal–contaminated water was linked to a neighbouring cess pit, all modern cities now have a network of underground sewers beneath them. These require a sloping gradient and careful design because the water flows away by gravity and, with it, carries along human waste solids [11].

Hydrological change has shaped how human society responds to water crises, droughts, and floods in multiple ways, formally or not [4,16] . This has necessitated structures constructed to hold back water, including flood defences, such as levees built to limit hurricane–induced flooding of New Orleans (USA) or the Thames Barrier erected to stop London (UK) from inundations of tidal flooding, or less costly designs, such as sea walls fronted by rip-rap (Fig. 1.3), wooden revetments or gabion cages of shingle, which serve to dissipate wave energy and minimise the impacts. Water engineering structures have traditionally provided solutions to control the movement of water for a variety of purposes across a range of landscapes. Most fundamentally, engineered infrastructure provides essential services to people, such as water and energy, and protects them from hazards, such as floods or pathogens in sewage [26]. For instance, during the 18th century, dams were built primarily to store water for canals; moving into the 19th century, water supply was the priority (Fig. 1.4) and by the early 20th century, they were used to supply power to industry [8]. The latter half of the 20th century saw a peak in dam construction due to an increase in population and demand for hydro–electric power [25]. In more recent times advances in desalination have meant water engineers have been able to transform the inexhaustible supply of sea water into potable fresh water [21].

Fig. 1.3 Coastal protection: (A) an undermined collapsed seawall and damaged footpath (Gran Canaria, Spain); and (B) a seawall fronted by an amour of modular concrete rip-rap to dissipate wave energy and provide flood protection during times of high water (Scarborough, England).

Fig. 1.4 A stone-built dam (constructed in 1888), standing 45 m high, 37 m wide at its base and 355 m long, creating Lake Vyrnwy reservoir, Powys, Wales, was built to provide reliable supply of freshwater to the City of Liverpool, England (photos show both sides of the same structure).

Property–level flood defences, such as door aperture guards and air brick covers, or adaptations made to the outside of properties, such as raised step thresholds or external tanking, have been purposed to restrict floodwaters from entering buildings (Fig. 1.5). Similarly, with the impacts of climate change unlikely to disappear, internal adaptations are becoming commonplace, such as raised electrical sockets and services/appliances, so as to minimise the costs of repairs and time spent away from properties during times of post-flood reinstatement [7].

Fig. 1.5 Property-level flood protection (Gloucestershire, England): (A) a row of terraced houses sheltered behind a floodwall to stop fluvial flooding; and (B) a garden sump pumping rising groundwater over the same floodwall.

Droughts and water shortage are also commonplace for many populations. Household–level water saving, and water conservation is becoming a routine requirement across both the western world and the low– and middle–income countries. There has been a dramatic increase in water demand since the 1940s. For example, Europeans are using an average of 3550 L per capita per day and this amount is increasing steadily as incomes rise [24]. Per capita water use in England and Wales is 143 L per person per day.² However, water use varied depending on household size, with single–person household consuming up to 149 L/d.³ Thus, the amount of water used can be attributed to multiple factors, including presence or absence of water meters, number of people in households, culture and lifestyles, as well as access to water efficient devices and technologies. Water efficiency can be achieved through a range of technical and operational interventions [1,15]. For instance, changing a toilet from an old cistern (9 L) to new type cistern (4.5 L) can halve the water used per flush and fitting an aerated showerhead can reduce the flow–rate by 28 percent (∼3 L/min) [18]. However, technology improvements alone are not the answer.

Without doubt, water is fundamental to everyone's quality of life. Therefore, water could, in some circumstances, be considered more valuable than gold or diamonds. In fact, many wars and conflicts have been fought over rights of access to water e.g. disputes between India and Bangladesh over the River Ganges; disputes between Iraq, Syria and Turkey over the Rivers Euphrates and Tigris; disputes between Israel, Jordan, Lebanon and Palestine over the River Jordan; disputes between Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan over the Aral Sea, amongst many others [5,6,12]. Thus, effective water solutions need to consider how water resources link different parts of society and how decisions in one sector may affect water users in other areas and sectors, as well as to adopt a participatory and inclusive approach by involving all actors and stakeholders, from all levels, who use and potentially pollute water, so that it is managed equitably and sustainably [29]. Sustainable water engineering provides the necessary basis for a holistic, yet equitable, approach towards water resources management [9,10,13]. This supports the need for a paradigm shift in engineering thinking and practice. Therefore it is important for the modern–day water engineer to know far more than the Darcy–Weisbach equation or the Hagen–Poiseuille equation [19]; they must be trained and experienced with a multifaceted skillset of expertise and knowledge from pressure loss per unit length of pipe to political peace.

A shift in paradigm to sustainable water engineering, which incorporates the necessities of socio–technical aspects, by considering user preferences and requirements is key for the wiser sustainable protection of water sources and supplies, without compromises to health, wellbeing, and livelihood. At the domestic scale, understanding household attitudes and personal behaviours towards water usage are important challenges for the water industry. Policymakers, alongside the engineering and manufacturing sectors, need to understand public perceptions and the decision–making process behind consumer choices [3]. The delivery of sustainable water strategies goes beyond advancements in engineering and technologically innovative solutions. With projected increases in demands for good quality fresh water, educating society about sustainable personal water use and water quality threats becomes an absolute necessity [24]. Therefore, in proffering innovative solutions for sustainable development and to meet the challenges of climate change, engineers need to better engage with users., and better engage with policy makers. Specialisms and outlooks beyond the status quo are needed for a stepwise change to occur towards achieving many of the sustainable development goals and make a shift towards sustainable water engineering.

Thus, the value of this book is that, on one hand, it showcases innovation in sustainable water engineering solutions from nature to the user; whilst, on the other hand, it argues for a new type of sustainable water engineer – one who is well–rounded in the techniques, measures, and strategies for delivering complete, resilient, and integrated environmental, economic, and social water solutions.

1.2 Structure of this book

This book comprises three sections, which are collated into sixteen chapters.

The first chapters of the book expose the insights and issues of sustainable water engineering through an assemblage of chapters that focus on the collection, storage, transfer, and conservation of water supplies. These include: historical water supply (Chapter 2), potable water supplies (Chapter 3), greywater engineering (Chapter 4), water efficiency in buildings (Chapter 5), water resilient cities (Chapter 6), water, sanitation and hygiene (Chapter 7) and rainwater harvesting (Chapter 8).

The second sets of chapters present chapters that examine wastewater treatment, drainage, flooding, and protection. These include: phytotechnology for wastewater treatment (Chapter 9), highway drainage (Chapter 10), sustainable drainage systems (Chapter 11) and community/property flood protection (Chapter 12).

The final chapters include a collection of chapters that reveal insights into examples of varying scales of engineering designs. These include: micropower generation (Chapter 13), soft–water engineering (Chapter 14), the past, the present and the future of canals (Chapter 15) and some closing thoughts on the directions that technology may steer sustainable water engineering (Chapter 16).

1.3 Conclusions

Satisfying the ever–growing potable water demands of an ever–growing global population with an amount of water that remains constant, clearly requires a considered and careful management of water resources. Ensuring water is available and accessible requires future water engineers to think outside the traditional box. Engineers have an important role in an integrated water resources management approach that can enable a sustainable future, with sufficient quantity and adequate quality of water for all. Unfortunately, water is not universally abundant and for many nations the uneven distribution of water and human settlement continues to create growing problems of freshwater availability and accessibility.

Balancing water resources management with engineering ability is entirely essential. Too little versus too much is a challenge. The frequency of drought and flood events are continuing to increase worldwide, which means there is growing need to conserve available water resources, whilst at other times rainfall and runoff are completely undesirable. Most of society tends to follow the belief that new technologies will provide the solutions we need to save us from tragedy and adversity. However, engineers also must be mindful of human attitudes and behaviours. For instance, novel products exist to conserve/reduce water use in buildings and they also exist to restrict floodwater entry into buildings, yet there are some people who blatantly misuse or refuse to install (through personal preference or cost) new products or, in some cases, are wholly unaware of them or the advantages they offer.

If this introductory chapter has wetted your taste buds to know more about sustainable water engineering, then the proceeding chapters in this book will hopefully give you a giant head start in your quest for greater knowledge and understanding, by providing insights, inspiration and innovation. For those interested in making strides towards sustainable water–focused lifestyle changes, some chapters also contain guidance on how to address potable water shortages and minimise the impacts of floodwater excesses… In the meantime, we hope you will carry on reading and enjoy rest of the book!

References

[1] K. Adeyeye, Water Efficiency in Buildings, Wiley–Blackwells, Oxford, 2014, ISBN: 978-1118456576.

[2] K. Adeyeye, J. Gibberd, J. Chakwizira, Water marginality in rural and peri-urban settlements, J. Cleaner Prod. 2020;273 article No 122594 doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122594.

[3] K. Adeyeye, K. She, A. Baïri, Design factors and functionality matching in sustainability products: a study of eco–showerheads, J. Cleaner Prod. 142 (2017) 4214–4229.

[4] W.N. Adger, T. Quinn, I. Lorenzoni, C. Murphy, J. Sweeney, Changing social contracts in climate‐change adaptation, Nat. Clim. Chang. 3 (4) (2013) 330–333.

[5] T. Allan, J.A. Allan, The Middle East Water Question: Hydropolitics and the Global Economy, New York: Published by I.B. Tauris; 2000 ISBN: 978-1860645822.

[6] G. Baranyai, European Water Law and Hydropolitics: An Inquiry into the Resilience of Transboundary Water Governance in the European Union, Switzerland: Springer; 2019 ISBN: 978-3030225407.

[7] D.W. Beddoes, C.A. Booth, J.E. Lamond, Towards complete property–level flood protection of domestic buildings in the UK, In: S. Hernández, S. Mambretti, D.G. Proverbs, J. Puertas (Eds.),, Urban Water Systems and Floods II, Southampton: WIT Press; 2018, pp. 27–38.

[8] L.S. Blake, Civil Engineer’s Reference Book, 4th ed. Butterworth–Heinmann Ltd, Oxford, 1989.

[9] C.A. Booth, S.M. Charlesworth, Water Resources for the Built Environment: Management Issues and Solutions, Oxford: Wiley–Blackwells; 2014 ISBN: 978-0470670910.

[10] C.A. Booth, F.N. Hammond, J.E. Lamond, D.G. Proverbs, Solutions to Climate Change Challenges in the Built Environment, Wiley–Blackwells, Oxford, 2012 ISBN: 978-1405195072.

[11] C.A. Booth, D. Oloke, A. Gooding, S.M. Charlesworth, The necessity for urban wastewater collection, treatment, and disposal, In: S.M. Charlesworth, C.A. Booth (Eds.),, Urban Pollution: Science and Management, Oxford: Wiley–Blackwells; 2018, pp. 119–130.

[12] S.M. Charlesworth, C.A. Booth, Water resources challenges – penury and peace, In: C.A. Booth, S.M. Charlesworth (Eds.),, Water Resources in the Built Environment: Management Issues and Solutions, Oxford: Wiley–Blackwells; 2014, pp. 403–406.

[13] S.M. Charlesworth, C.A. Booth, Sustainable Surface Water Management: A Handbook for SuDS, Oxford: Wiley–Blackwells; 2017 ISBN: 978-1118897690.

[14] S.M. Charlesworth, L.A. Sañudo–Fontaneda, L.W. Mays, Back to the future? history and contemporary application of sustainable drainage techniques, In: S.M. Charlesworth, C.A. Booth (Eds.), Sustainable Surface Water Management: A Handbook for SuDS, 2017, Wiley–Blackwells, Oxford, 2018 pp. 13–30.

[15] S. Churchill, C.A. Booth, S.M. Charlesworth, Building regulations for water conservation, In: C.A. Booth, S.M. Charlesworth (Eds.),, Water Resources in the Built Environment: Management Issues and Solutions, Oxford: Wiley–Blackwells; 2014, pp.