Espionage Mechanism in the Arthasastra of Kautilya

By Ratan Lal Basu

The science of espionage has a long history of evolution and probably it originated ever since the emergence of state as the supreme form of governance in clan societies. The science, in course of emergence of larger states achieved high level of development in Egypt, Syria, Persia, China, Greece and India. By the 4th century B. C. the science of espionage in India achieved a spectacular level of advancement which was incorporated in Arthaśāstra. The basic theories of espionage as prescribed by Kauṭilya have changed very little in course of the last two millennia and three hundred years notwithstanding the widespread use of technological devices developed in course of industrial advance, especially, the cyber technology developed in course of the last few decades. As regards effectiveness of espionage methods, the modern espionage agencies are yet to learn a lot from the theories and practices of espionage as embodied in Arthaśāstra.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Kautilya
• Release date: Feb 8, 2023
• ISBN: 9798215998687

Ratan Lal Basu

ADDRESS: KOLKATAPh. D. in EconomicsProfession: Retired from 1st January, 2009 from the post of Reader in Economics and Teacher-in-Charge, Bhairab Ganguly College, Kolkata, India

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Contents

Chapter-1: Espionage in Arthaśāstra - Internal

Chapter-2: Espionage in Arthaśāstra - External

Chapter-1: Espionage in Arthaśāstra – War Related

Chapter-1: Espionage in Arthaśāstra - Internal

Introduction

Espionage has been an inexorable part of statecraft ever since the emergence of state as the supreme institution of governance of human societies. The term espionage, in general, applies to both internal intelligence of a state and intelligence pertaining to other countries. The ruler or ruling institutions of the state have to be well informed of the internal situation of a country, its citizens, the internal rival groups or individuals, the dissidents, the supporters of the ruling institution or ruler, the groups or individuals striving to destabilize the state machinery or conspiring against the government; the various conflicting groups and the inner struggle among them, the designs and movements of criminals of various categories, problems and aspirations of the people belonging to various social categories and professions etc. The quality and efficiency of governance of a state unquestionably depends on the quantity and quality of intelligence on the above mentioned aspects. In fact, without a competent internal espionage network, it is well neigh impossible for the government of a country to rule properly.

Quality of governance depends a good deal on the quality of internal intelligence. On the other hand the state ought to be well aware of the other countries – friendly, neutral and enemy countries – interstate rivalry or coalition, the attitude of them towards the country concerned, their war efforts, and weaponry, internal situation of these countries and their citizens, their economic conditions etc. All these pertain to external intelligence which has two aspects, viz. espionage activities about other countries that include both gathering of intelligence about them and destabilizing them in case of the enemy countries and to protect the country from espionage onslaughts of other countries (counter-espionage).

Two most important external activities of a state, ever since its emergence, have been to protect itself from foreign invasion and espionage plays a crucial role in facilitating successful external defence and territorial expansion by captivating other countries. No war, either a defensive or an offensive, could be waged successfully without high quality external intelligence as well as counter-intelligence. The basic characteristics of the states have remained almost unchanged even today notwithstanding the global efforts towards avoiding war and conflicts and emergence of world bodies like the UNO, the World Bank, and the WTO etc. Imperialism has changed forms in course of time from open to clandestine, indirect economic imperialism instead of direct territorial occupation, and in many cases hot war has changed into cold war without direct use of destructive weapons. So, importance of external intelligence has remained the same in statecraft in modern days. Moreover, economic intelligence networks to unravel economic secrets of other countries and to steal technologies from other countries have become common practice in the modern world.

With the progress of theories pertaining to state and material progress, complexities of inter-state relations have increased in course of time and accordingly, external espionage has become more complex and sophisticated. Keeping pace with the evolution of communication technologies, especially cyber technology, espionage techniques have become more and more subtle and complicated and opportunities to utilize modern technologies have added new dimensions to modern espionage and counter espionage theories. Spectacular developments of technologies pertaining to arms and ammunitions and destructive power of weaponry have enhanced the importance of military intelligence and counter intelligence of each country. Now-a-days, an important aspect of external intelligence pertains to weaponry and war efforts of other countries. With spectacular advance of productive technologies and technological gap between technologically advanced and backward countries, industrial and economic espionage has emerged as a novel aspect of modern external espionage. This pertains to both purely economic and war related technologies. Cyber technology has added new dimensions to modern espionage and cyber espionage (through Hacking, Phishing, Trojan horse and other similar devices) is something completely new in the arena of espionage.

The science of espionage has a long history of evolution and probably it originated ever since the emergence of state as the supreme form of governance in clan societies. The science, in course of emergence of larger states achieved high level of development in Egypt, Syria, Persia, China, Greece and India. By the 4th century B. C. the science of espionage in India achieved a spectacular level of advancement which was incorporated in Arthaśāstra. The basic theories of espionage as prescribed by Kauṭilya have changed very little in course of the last two millennia and three hundred years notwithstanding the widespread use of technological devices developed in course of industrial advance, especially, the cyber technology developed in course of the last few decades. As regards effectiveness of espionage methods, the modern espionage agencies are yet to learn a lot from the theories and practices of espionage as embodied in Arthaśāstra.

The major topics covered in this chapter are:

Essence of Arthaśāstra Espionage: Human Vices and Weaknesses

Types of Spies and Their Functions

Test of Ministers and Government Officials

Punishing Treasonable Officials by Devious Means

Stratagem against Princes or Officials Going to Join the Enemy

Dangers from Officers in the Outer Region and the Interior

Spy Network for the Citizens

Apprehending and Punishing Criminals

Essence of Arthaśāstra Espionage: Human Vices and Weaknesses

Kauṭilya’s espionage method was mainly based on use of human resources which in modern parlance may be termed ‘Humint’. Kauṭilya’s supremacy lies in the fact that his espionage theory had in its essence basic vices and vulnerabilities of human beings. Kauṭilya had a thorough knowledge of the ancient Indian concept of the innermost aspects of human psychosis from which all conceivable human vices and vulnerabilities arise.

Basic human modes – the Sankhya concepts (Ballantyne, 1885)

According to Sankhya philosophy of Kapila of ancient India, human nature and consciousness is a combination of three basic modes, viz. satva, rajasa and tamasa (the adjectives of these abstract nouns are respectively sātvika, rājasika and tāmasika). If isolated in