Concise Psychology: An Integrated Forensic Approach to Psychology for Global African Settings

By John Egbeazien Oshodi

This book presents an integrated forensic approach to psychology. Its purpose is to help African institutional settings in particular better manage the criminal justice systems in a structured, safe, supportive and progressive environment while also exploring all the psychological influences that impact the people and society. This book presents

• Language: English
• Publisher: Go To Publish
• Release date: Jul 29, 2022
• ISBN: 9781647496906

Book preview

Dedication

To the memory of my parents, Samuel Ebibhiehiele Oshodi

and Christabel Akhahoieien Oshodi, who instilled in

me a craving for knowledge and scholarship.

To my wife Mairlyn Lightbourn-Oshodi,

my friend and backbone.

This book is dedicated to the appreciation and memory of my psychology student, Munir Muhammed Mamman,

who initially convinced me to start this book

and brilliantly gave the initial organization

of the manuscript.

Preface

This book presents an integrated forensic approach to psychology. Its goal is to assist African institutional settings, in particular, in better managing criminal justice systems in a structured, safe, supportive, and progressive environment, while also exploring all psychological influences that impact people and society. This book presents an integrated forensic approach to psychology. This book presents a concise, comprehensive, evidence-based action formulated from forensic psychology and its sub-areas, including police psychology, corrections psychology, cyber psychology, military psychology, investigative psychology, nutritional psychology, health psychology, clinical and community psychology, personality assessment, social psychology, human sexuality, adolescent development, and the teaching of legal psychology, public service psychology, and school psychology. It has concise writing yet presents a comprehensive textbook with all the contents required to teach a typical introduction to forensic psychology text in an interdiscipl inary way.

The textbook contains everything needed by practitioners, scholars, and students that can be read thoroughly. It contains customizable chapters with active learning components and built-in questions accompanying each chapter.

Chapter 1:

What is Psychology?

Psychology is the study of people’s behavior, actions, and mental processes. In general terms, the word psyche means the human soul, and the ology refers to the scientific study of the human mind. In the 19th century, psychology became a science and an academic discipline that distinguished it from philosophy. The names responsible for its scientific foundations are Wilhelm Wundt of Germany and William James of America. Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) was the first to be called a psychologist. In his book entitled, Principles of Physiological Psychology, published in 1873, he regarded psychology as a scientific study of the conscious experience, using introspection or an internal perception as a process by which someone can examine their own conscious experience objectively. In his laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879, he developed the concept of structuralism. He asserted that thinking is made up of fundamental parts of the experience, reflection; the human mind or mental processes can be broken into components. In a more detailed manner, his student, Edward Titchener, stated that the mind could easily perceive the meaning by breaking the thought process into different parts such as sensations, feelings, a nd images.

The subject of human psychology lies at the intersection of theoretical and applied science—psychology studies how and why humans behave and act the way they do. Psychology helps us learn of the mind and the brain’s basic processes and the behavior they produce. The system of psychological knowledge here presents psychology as a central science, with its interdisciplinary contributions of psychological science and how it applies to many other fields such as law enforcement, judiciary, penal and corrections settings.

Becoming a Psychologist

Psychologists play essential roles in helping people and society deal with widespread problems. To protect the public and make sure psychologists are highly trained in their various specialty areas, many countries require a license to practice. In most states in the United States and Euro-American countries, psychologists start by earning a bachelor’s degree in psychology from an accredited university with core courses such as general psychology, experimental psychology, developmental psychology, statistical psychology, and various other psychology-focused courses. Upon acquiring their bachelor’s degree, psychology students proceed to a master’s degree program or a Doctorate Degree program. For example, in the United States, upon receiving a Doctorate Degree such as Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology (PhD), Doctor in Psychology (PSY.D), or Doctor of Education in Psychology (ED.D), a one to two-year supervised internship, job training allows one to engage in a particular specialty such as clinical psychology, counseling psychology, industrial psychology, neuropsychology, and forensic psychology.

In various American states and many nations, one must pass a Board of Psychology examination, including state and national licensing requirements to be recognized as a psychologist. Psychologists and psychiatrists require a Doctoral level degree. A major difference is that psychiatrists are medical doctors and mainly prescribe medications to help their clients deal with various psychological and emotional problems, overcome substance abuse, and more. Other licensed counselors and therapists generally have a master’s degree in psychology, clinical social work, and mental health counseling. Generally, they have at least a master’s degree and supervised internship totaling two to three years in all. In Nigeria and many African countries, to be a psychologist, one has to have an undergraduate degree in psychology, a Master’s degree in any of the subfields of psychology, or a Doctorate degree in psychology. Formal state and national licensing requirements, such as an examination, are yet to be fully implemented in African and other emerging democracies.

Examples of Professional Psychologists

Health psychologists focus specifically on the inference of psychology on health and wellness, and many health psychologists address issues like smoking, nutrition, exercise, and preventive medical care. Industrial organization psychologists utilize an understanding of the human brain and behavior to improve the quality of the workplace, work environment, employee and employer relationships, and productivity. Cognitive psychologists generally examine the human thought process and how information is obtained, processed, and stored in the human brain. They often do research and experiments to understand perception, memory, and learning better.

Counseling psychologists generally treat clients experiencing emotional difficulties caused by the social, community, physical, and environmental factors. These psychologists usually work on marriage, family, and grief counseling type environments to improve well-being and decrease the stress of their clients, also known as patients.

Developmental psychologists are trained to understand how people mature emotionally and physically. These psychologists’ study human development from birth until old age and generally research the body’s biological growth, cognitive functioning, and emotional stability. A known famous development psychologist is Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist who theorized that children learn best by actively exploring and discovering new items and outcomes, which they save in their memories and use as building blocks for more exploration in the future.

School psychologists study factors that impact learning, including learning methodologies and how information is processed and absorbed; they study memory, concepts, and individual differences and how they affect a person’s approach to learning. These psychologists are involved in psychological services at various school levels and provide assessment, counseling and training for students with learning disabilities, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and other classroom challenges related to reading fluency, comprehension, spelling, and mathematics. John Dewey is a famous educational psychology consultant who stated that education and learning are mental, social, and interactive processes. He believed that what students learn in class is comparable to their life experiences which help create a stronger bond in their brain’s memory.

Experimental psychologists generally conduct experiments and investigations into psychological processes such as perception, attention, memory, and reasoning. Industrial-organization psychology, also known as I/O psychology, usually studies how human behaviors influence industry and organizations. These psychologists evaluate work situations and help develop a plan for optimum performance in work-life balance for employees. These psychologists specialize in designing and executing research outcomes on workplace environments and are also involved in decision-making theories. A non-famous I/O psychologist is Anita Woolley (Woolley et al., 2010).

Education psychologists are trained in psychology with a focus on education and child development (Braden et al., 2001). Educational psychology generally focuses on helping find a conducive environment for students to learn and helping teachers find optimal learning space. One of the most famous school psychologists is an African-American, Albert Sidney Beckham, who founded a famous psychology lab at Howard University. He assisted in studying the first school counseling effects on secondary school students (Graves Jr, 2009).

Social psychologists work and research to understand individual behaviors and personalities within a group of social contexts. These psychologists study how social and environmental factors influence how human beings act and the condition in which those actions occur. These psychologists help understand peoples’ attitudes, willingness to conform within a group setting, and social decision-making. The most famous social psychologist is Floyd Henry Allport, whose book Social Psychology showed that social behavior results from interactions. It is not a predetermined aspect of one’s personality (Allport, 1917).

Sports psychologists assist athletes in achieving optimal functioning on the field. These psychologists study how sports affect the emotions and cognitions of athletes. Clinical neuropsychologists study neurobehavioral problems related to acquired or developmental disorders within the nervous system. These psychologists study the brain’s working, brain development process, neuropsychological disorders, neuro-diagnostic techniques, and neuropsychological therapies.

Behavioral psychologists use the principles of human learning and development and theories of cognitive processing to assist persons struggling with psychological difficulties. They utilize strict treatments, which include behavior modification and cognitive therapy.

Discussion

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Discuss the essentials of psychology.

• Recognize and describe the different professions in psychology.

Chapter 2:

Influential Psychological Minds

Abraham Maslow (1908 - 1970)

Abraham Maslow was born in New York, New York. He was an American psychologist and philosopher who was best known for his self-actualization theory of psychology (Maslow, 1943). He argued that the primary goal of psychotherapy should be the integration of the self. Maslow significantly contributed to humanistic psychology with his 1954 publication, Motivation and Personality, and Toward a Psychology of Being, published in 1962. Maslow asserted that each person has a hierarchy of needs that must be certified, ranging from one’s basic physiological or biological requirements to love, esteem, and finally oneself. He stated that as each need is certified, the next higher level is the emotional hierarchy that dominates conscious functioning. He believed that truly healthy people were self-actualized because they satisfied the highest psychological needs, fully integrating the various parts of their personality or self. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in the field of psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs sometimes depicted as hierarchal levels. Maslow stated that needs lower down in the hierarchy must be certified before individuals respond and attend to higher needs. From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are as follows (Maslow, 2019):

a. Biological needs that include food, water, and shelter are essential to satisfy these needs so that the body can function appropriately. Maslow considered these needs the most important, given that all other needs are secondary.

b. Safety needs. Once an individual’s physiological needs are generally satisfied, the need for security and safety becomes essential. Everyone wants to experience order, predictability, and some degree of control of their lives. The family and society can fulfill these needs through schools, police, business, and medical care; for example, emotional security and physical security come in the form of employment and social welfare, law and order, freedom from apprehension, social stability, property, health, and well-being related to safety from accidents and injury.

c. Love and acceptance need. The third level of human needs is social, involving feelings of belongingness. It is the need for interpersonal relationships that motivates behavior. Examples include having friends, intimacy, acceptance, trust, receiving and giving affection and love, affiliation such as being part of a group as in family and work.

d. Esteem needs. The fourth level of the hierarchy is classified into two categories: Esteem for oneself (e.g., dignity, achievement, mastery, independence) and the desire for respect from others, e.g., prestige and status. Maslow noted that the need for respect is more important for children and young adults, and it precedes genuine self-esteem or dignity.

e. Self-actualization needs are the highest level in Maslow’s hierarchy and refer to realizing one’s potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth, and peak experiences. Maslow describes this level as the ultimate desire to accomplish everything that one can, realize their highest potential to become the most that one can be. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has contributed significantly to teaching, classroom work, and therapeutic services. These needs, which involve every individual’s physical, emotional, social, and qualities, have a way to impact us, whether in our state of learning or when involved in some form of therapeutic help.

f. The five-stage model can be classified into deficiency needs and growth needs. The first four levels are the deficiency needs, and the top level is known as the growing need or being needs. The first four levels are viewed as deficiency needs as they arise due to deprivation and are known to motivate people in different ways. For example, the longer a person goes without eating, the hungrier they become. While Maslow initially believed that the satisfaction of the need is an all or none phenomenon, he later clarified that a need must not be 100% certified before the next need emerges. The growth needs do not stem from a general lack of something but rather a strong desire to grow. Once the growth needs have been reasonably satisfied, one can reach the highest level called self-actualization. However, while everyone has the strong desire to move up the hierarchy towards a level of self-actualization, in life, there are unfortunate challenges that could lead to failure to meet every lower need. And that can include financial difficulties like job loss which may cost an individual to fluctuate between levels of the hierarchy. The first level in the hierarchy of needs is the physiological needs - the physical requirements for human survival, e.g., food, air, shelter, clothing, sex, warmth, and sleep.

Abu-Bakr Musa Tafida

Abu-Bakr Musa Tafida is the first Nigerian to receive a doctorate, specifically in Forensic and Correctional Psychology in Nigeria, and to our knowledge in Africa, from the Nasarawa State University, a pioneering institution for forensic psychology education. Dr. Abu-Bakr Tafida was born on July 15, 1979, in Awe, Nasarawa. He is one of the pioneer students to receive a Bachelor’s Degree in Psychology in 2005, followed by a Master’s Degree in Clinical Psychology at the Benue State University in Makurdi in 2012. Dr. Tafida received his forensic psychology training under Professor Amechi Nweze, a Canadian-trained clinical psychologist of Nigerian birth who helped establish a forensic psychology program in Nigeria and, by all appearances, in Africa. Professor Amechi’s background in clinical psychology, substantial interest in the psychology of policing and penal psychology and psychology of terrorism, along with his multiple teachings, writings, and constitutional work with criminal justice agencies, has collectively metamorphosed into the creation of the first scientific discipline of psychology at the Nasarawa State University. Dr. Tafida is a senior lecturer in the department of psychology at Nasarawa State University and the current national coordinator of the Nigerian Association of Forensic Psychologists.

Na’im Akbar

Na’im Akbar, born Luther Benjamin Weems, Jr., on April 26, 1944, in Tallahassee, Florida, is an American clinical psychologist who is one of the earliest psychologists to craft a black psychology course at Norfolk State University. He continued his work on African-centered psychology at Florida State University. His significant contributions to the discipline of psychology are developing an African-centered approach to human psychology, which he did by giving speeches and producing publications focused on the deconstruction of Euro-Centric psychological thought, especially related to the black being. In his 1991 publication, Mental Disorders Among African American, Akbar, from an African-centered psychological view, criticized Euro-American psychological definitions of mental health that were historically used to categorize and label many African Americans as mentally ill (Akbar, 1991a). He viewed such a Euro-centric approach to blackness as a form of intellectual oppression. In his 1991 publication, Visions for Black Men, through the lens of African-centered psychology, Akbar tried to empower black men to become more self-determined, be optimistic about their blackness, and fulfill their personal and professional roles as men and family members in society (Akbar, 1991b). As a result of his numerous academic and clinical contributions to psychology, he has received worldwide awards and served on the boards of directors for several organizations, including the National Association of Black Psychologists.

John Egbeazien Oshodi

Author John Egbeazien Oshodi was born in Uromi, Edo State, Nigeria, on June 8, 1959. One of eight children, he grew up in a law enforcement family with traditional roots. Following his secondary school education at the Hussey College, Warri, Delta State, he came to the United States of America and settled in Miami, Florida, in 1982. He received his Bachelor’s Degree and Master’s Degree in Criminal Justice/Criminology from the Florida International University in 1983 and 1987. In 1991 he received his Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Forensic Psychology with Distinction from Carlos Albizu University in Miami, Florida.

In his capacity as a licensed clinical forensic psychologist in the State of Florida since 1993, he has provided psychological services through the Oshodi Foundation Center for Psychological and Forensic Services, and his work broadly covers other areas of South Florida. His professional experiences include working as a rehabilitation therapist for a Florida corrections institute (in Florida) and as a juvenile probation officer for the State of Florida. He is a psychological consultant for various government agencies focusing on adult/juvenile, disability, vocational, and community mental health assessments and treatment. He has taught at various universities and colleges in the United States and internationally. He worked as a volunteer assistant professor at the psychiatric department of the University of Miami in Florida from 1995 to 2003. He served as an assistant professor of psychology and as an interim associate dean at the North Campus of Broward College from 2009 to 2011.

In 2011 he formally introduced the discipline of forensic psychology into Nigeria through the Nasarawa State University in Keffi, Nigeria, where he served as an associate professor from 2011 up to 2016. He is currently a visiting online professor of education/management/ psychology at the Institut Superieur de Communication d’ Organisation et de Management (ISCOM) University in the Republic of Benin, and served as the development professor/international liaison/consultant at the African University of Benin, Republic of Benin. He is currently working on the proposed Transatlantic Egbeazien Open University of Values and Ethics (TEU), also known as the Transatlantic Egbeazien Open University of Psychological Sciences. TEU, an ethics-based university, seeks to have the distinction of being the first private free virtual university in North and South America, the Caribbean, and Africa. He is an author and publisher of over 37 scholarly and clinical works and has written over 200 public opinion papers focusing on African and black-related issues. In 2011 he published History of Psychology in the Black Experience Perspectives Then and Now: Psychology in the Perspective of the History of Africans and People of African Descent (Oshodi, 2012). He published a political psychology monograph, A Glance at American Presidents in Black Life: From George Washington to George W. Bush in 2009 (Oshodi, 2009). He is the originator of the concept of Psychoafricalysis, or Psychoafrocalytic psychology. As part of his clinical psychological publications, he developed The Oshodi Visual-Motor Optimal Test (OVMOT) (Oshodi, 2014), The Oshodi Sentence Completion Index (OSCI) (Oshodi, 1999), and the Common Ground Psychology (An Emergent Theory and Practice and its Relevance for Africa, Oshodi, 2020).

Bame Nsamenang

Bame Nsamenang is an associate professor of psychology and learning sciences at Yaoundé University’s Advanced School of Education [ENS Bambili campus], Cameroon. He was co-founder and director of the Human Development Resource Centre (HDRC), a research and service facility in Bamenda, Cameroon.

His research interests are human development studies from a lifespan perspective, focusing on Africa’s next generations - children and youth (Pence & Nsamenang, 2008).

His primary research and focus are on early childhood and adolescent development. Bame is one of the visible leaders in evolving indigenous African psychology and an advocate for a culturally appropriate and education. His education approach is consistent with the African Union’s vision of an integrated, peaceful, prosperous Africa, driven by its people to take its rightful place in the global community and the knowledge economy. (Pongo, 2018).

Wilhelm Wundt (1832 - 1920)

Wilhelm Wundt was a German-trained physiologist and psychologist. He was globally recognized as the founder of experimental psychology. This field of psychology relates to investigating the best methodologies to collect relevant data to research animal and human test subjects. Wundt’s main contribution includes establishing the world’s first psychological laboratory and a psychological journal. He significantly contributed to the early beginnings of forensic psychology as his methodology provided a pathway for the modern-day study of criminal behavior motives, trial testimony, and jury selection techniques (Farr, 1983).

Hugo Munsterberg (1863 - 1916)

Hugo Munsterberg is a German-American psychologist who received a medical degree and Doctorate under the tutelage of Wilhelm Wundt at the University of Leipzig. He is viewed as a pioneer in applied psychology and was subsequently recruited by Harvard University to direct the institution’s experimental psychology laboratory (Stern, 1917). As part of his research work, he focused on applying his research outcomes to questions that addressed education and legal issues. He mainly applied psychological factors to legal trials and issues in jury selection. Munsterberg’s most significant book in forensic psychology is On the Witness Stand, which contained a collection of impactful essays on psychology and crime (Shami, 2002).

Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939)

Sigmund Freud was a neuroscientist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a revolutionary method of treating mental disorders introduced in the 20th century. He developed the theory of the unconscious, which states that the mind consists of processes that happen automatically and could go unnoticed by the conscious mind (Jones, 1940).

B. F. Skinner (1904 - 1990)

B. F. Skinner developed the psychological theory that there was no such thing as free will. He believed that every aspect of human functioning is based on actions that are entirely dependent on the consequences of actions. If the consequences were terrible, the individual would most likely not repeat the actions. Still, if the consequences are good, the individual would most likely repeat the actions due to their positive outcomes. This phenomenon is called the Principle of Reinforcement (Bjork, 1997).

Jean Piaget (1896 - 1980)

Jean Piaget was a Swiss clinical psychologist. He is best known for his work in child development. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development states that children can comprehend their reality at various stages. The first stage, the sensori-motor stage, begins at birth through the age of two, during which children’s behaviors are solely based on their observations; the second stage is the pre-operational stage; children enter this stage at age two and continue through age six or seven. During this stage, children’s minds are developing at a fast pace and their thinking abilities are widening. Children are now beginning to think and talk, though they are not able to fully think and reason logically. The third stage is the concrete operational, which begins at age seven and ends at age twelve. During this stage, children begin to show signs of using logical thinking like adults. The final stage is the formal operational, which begins at age 11 and continues through adulthood. At this stage, the ability to use full logic and reasoning processes is utilized, and they begin to show signs of using real as well as abstract situations as a form of thought. Piaget’s assumptions that there are distinct stages of cognitive development as a child does not really have to pass through one stage to enter the next, in a linear fashion and his theory doesn’t account for social and cultural influences on child development (Newcombe, 2013).

Harry Hollingworth (1880 - 1956)

Harry Hollingworth is a pioneer in applied Psychology who served as an expert witness in the famous legal action against Coca-Cola and the United States government (Benjamin Jr et al., 1991). The United States government had accused Coca-Cola of selling a product detrimental to people’s health because it contained caffeine, which is deemed a harmful ingredient. The Coca-Cola Company hired Hollingworth to conduct experiments on caffeine and its consequences on human beings. Hollingworth completed the experiments in forty days. His gifted education of experimental studies is being used today as a teaching method to demonstrate how one should conduct forensic experiments.

Hollingworth’s experiments became favorable to Coca-Cola as he testified that some drinks merely contained mild stimulants for cognitive and motor performance. Most significantly, his testimony revealed no evidence of any detrimental effect on peoples’ mental and physical capacity, as alleged by the government. He helped the Coca-Cola Company win the case as the court passed judgment against the government (Hollingworth et al., 2012).

William Marston (1893 - 1947)

William Marston was an American psychologist and a lawyer who made a significant impact in forensic psychology. While he is sometimes credited for inventing the polygraph machine, which John Larson, a