Psychopathy and Criminal Behavior: Current Trends and Challenges

By Mauro Paulino

Psychopathy and Criminal Behavior: Current Trends and Challenges fills a gap in the market by covering new topics and angles not addressed in other literature. The book's authors approach the interaction of psychopathy with different types of crime, reflecting on comorbidity with other disorders, symptoms and emotional function. In addition to examining questions of prevention and treatment, they present new developments with solid theory and scientific evidence, also addressing forensic realities. This is a must-have guide for practitioners, students or anyone interested in psychopathy, criminal behavior and the various avenues of treatment.

• Provides a direct and concise approach, reflecting on the construct of psychopathy and its implications in forensic settings
• Includes sections on models of development in psychopathy and the neuropsychological fundamentals of the role of psychopathy in violent behavior
• Written for researchers, practitioners and students

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Oct 27, 2021
• ISBN: 9780128114209

Book preview

9780128114209_FC

Psychopathy and Criminal Behavior

Current Trends and Challenges

First Edition

Paulo Barbosa Marques

Immigration and Borders Service (SEF), Porto, Portugal

Mauro Paulino

Mind – Institute of Clinical and Forensic Psychology, Lisbon, Portugal

Laura Alho

Laura Alho – Clinical and Forensic Psychology, Mind – Institute of Clinical and Forensic Psychology, and WPO, Aveiro, Portugal

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

About the editors

About the authors

Foreword

References

1: Practical considerations for the clinical and forensic use of psychopathy

Abstract

Introduction

Understanding psychopathy research

PCL-R usage

The Rorschach

Conclusions

References

2: The emergence and development of psychopathy

Abstract

Introduction

Genetic and environmental research

Family dynamics associated with intergenerational transmission of psychopathy

Neurobiological research

Cognitive and behavioral research

Conclusions

References

3: Neural correlates of psychopathy: A comprehensive review

Abstract

Acknowledgments

Introduction

Neuroimaging studies with forensic samples

Neuroimaging studies with community samples

Conclusions

References

4: Emotional functioning in psychopathy: A critical review and integration with general emotion theories

Abstract

Introduction

Focus on emotion in theories of adult psychopathy

Explaining emotion in psychopathy: An evaluation of current theories

The nature of emotion: A multicomponential framework for studying emotional functioning in psychopathy

The role of different emotion components in psychopathy

Conclusions

References

5: The development of psychopathy through the lifespan and its relation to offending

Abstract

Acknowledgments

Introduction

The Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development

Results

Conclusions

References

6: Assessment of psychopathy and antisocial behavior

Abstracts

Introduction

Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revisited (PCL-R; Hare, 2003)

Self-Report Psychopathy Scale-4 (SRP-4; Paulhus, Neumann, Hare, Williams, & Hemphill, 2016)

Hare P-SCAN (Hare & Herve, 1999)

Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy (LSRP; Levenson et al., 1995)

Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI; Lilienfeld & Andrews, 1996)

The Triarchic Psychopathy Measure (TriPM; Patrick, 2010)

Antisocial Process Screening Device (APSD; Frick & Hare, 2001)

Comprehensive Assessment of Psychopathic Personality

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (Ben-Porath & Tellegen, 2008; Butcher et al., 2001)

Personality Assessment Inventory (Morey, 1991)

Conclusions

References

7: The concept of psychopathy and risk assessment: Historical developments, contemporary considerations, and future directions

Abstract

Introduction

Historical developments: The psychopathy construct relative to offending

Mutual influence of the psychopathy concept and violence risk assessment

Contemporary considerations of the psychopathy construct in forensic risk assessment

Conclusions

References

8: Communicating with psychopaths in law enforcement settings

Abstract

Introduction

The psychopathic label and effects on communication

Communication skills when negotiating with psychopaths

Conclusions

References

9: Negotiating with the psychopathic hostage taker

Abstract

Introduction

The psychopath

Specific related research

The basics of negotiations

Suggested negotiation strategies

Conclusions

References

10: Interviewing psychopaths: Toward a science of investigative interviewing of psychopathic suspects

Abstract

Introduction

The evolution of practices in police interrogation

Preparing to interview a psychopath

The establishment of rapport with a psychopath

Obtaining an account and presenting the evidence

Closing the interview and authenticating a confession

Evaluation of the interview process

Conclusions

References

11: Psychopathy evidence in legal proceedings

Abstract

Introduction

Psychopathy, expert evidence, and legal admissibility

Psychopathy evidence and inter-rater reliability

Psychopathy evidence and the potential for stigmatization

Other controversies regarding psychopathy evidence

Future directions

Conclusions

References

12: Psychopathy, offending style and crime scene behavior

Abstract

Introduction

Qualitative differences in violence

Classification of psychopathy and application to offense behavior

Investigative psychology: Avenues for future research

Conclusions

References

13: Psychopathy and drug-related crime and violence

Abstract

Introduction

Theories of addiction and crime

Primary and secondary psychopathy

What do we know about psychopathy and drug-related crime among juveniles?

What do we know about psychopathy and drug-related crime with regard to gender?

Convergence based on severe 5% reasoning

A role for intervention?

Conclusions

References

14: Are gang members psychopaths?

Abstract

Introduction

A brief overview of psychopathy in criminology

The gang membership/psychopathy link

Conclusions

References

15: Psychopathy and sexual offending over the life course: An exploratory longitudinal investigation

Abstract

Introduction

Historical perspectives

Theoretical perspectives

The incarcerated serious and violent young offender study

The relationship between psychopathy and sexual offending in the ISVYOS

Summarizing the relationship of psychopathy and sexual offending

Explicating the psychopathy-sexual offending relationship

Conclusions

References

16: Psychopathy is integral to understanding homicide and violence

Abstract

Introduction

Psychopathy and homicide offending

Psychopathy and sexual offending

Psychopathy and other violent offending

Interacting with psychopathic offenders: Familiar insights and novel recommendations

Psychopathy is integral to understanding violent offenders

Conclusions

References

17: Psychopathy in human trafficking offenders: Current trends and challenges

Abstract

Introduction

Literature review

Conclusions

References

18: Psychopathy and terrorist involvement

Abstracts

Introduction

Paradigm one—Psychopathy as key

Paradigm two—Personality as key

Paradigm three—Synthesizing the evidence

Paradigm four—The empirical turn

Conclusions

References

19: Psychopathy and corporate crime

Abstract

Introduction

Psychopathy: From clinical and correctional settings to corporation

What differentiates corporate psychopaths from psychopaths found in prison settings?

Financial crime

Corporate fraud

Introducing the concept of antipersonnel crime: The hidden face of corporate crime

How corporate psychopaths operate

What can be done to prevent corporate crime?

Conclusions

References

20: Psychopathy: Cybercrime and cyber abuse

Abstract

Introduction

Psychopathy and disordered internet use

Psychopathy and cyber aggression

Psychopathy and online sexual behavior

Psychopathy and online child pornography

Psychopathy and cyber deceit and fraud

Conclusions

References

21: Psychopathy and animal cruelty offenders

Abstract

Introduction

Conceptualizations of animal cruelty

Animal cruelty and the legal system

Animal cruelty offenders

Theories of animal cruelty

Research on psychopathic traits and animal cruelty

Conclusions

References

22: Treatment of psychopathic offenders: A review of research, past, and current practice

Abstract

Introduction

Psychopathy and response to treatment

Psychopathy treatment reviews

Ineffective treatment approaches: What doesn’t work

Promising treatment approaches: What might work

Implementation of the two-component model: Component 1

Implementation of the two-component model: Component 2

Empirical support for promising treatment approaches

Conclusions

References

Afterword—Psychopathy: Key unresolved questions

What have we learned?

Psychopathy: Three key unresolved questions

References

Index

Copyright

Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier

125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom

525 B Street, Suite 1650, San Diego, CA 92101, United States

50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States

The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom

Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-0-12-811419-3

For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Stacy Masucci

Acquisitions Editor: Elizabeth Brown

Editorial Project Manager: Fernanda A. Oliveira

Production Project Manager: Selvaraj Raviraj

Cover Designer: Mark Rogers

Cover Artwork: Emanuel de Castro Dias

Typeset by STRAIVE, India

Image 1

Dedication

The editors would like to dedicate this book to their families.

In loving memory of Professor Scott Lilienfelda

1960–2020

Over the course of more than three decades, Scott Lilienfeld provided the psychopathy field lenses through which to see its problems, instruments to provide solutions to those problems, and theoretical rigor to challenge the field’s thinking. Throughout his career Scott highlighted the importance of skeptical thinking and willingness to critically examine assumptions in the face of new data. We have been fortunate to have such an intellectual giant shaping our field.

Some of Scott’s initial papers highlighted why self-reports of psychopathy correlated weakly with each other: They covered various features of psychopathy incompletely, often focusing on antisocial behaviors rather than the personality dispositions underpinning psychopathy. His Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI) wove together the strands of decades of theorizing on psychopathy into a comprehensive measure of the psychopathic personality. Beyond developing the PPI, his work demonstrated how psychopathy, psychopathology, and personality are manifestations of the same fundamental processes; separated key features of psychopathy into their constituent and mechanistic parts; and sought to examine psychopathy’s manifestations in real-world contexts. The numerous honors and awards he received, including the Society for Scientific Study of Psychopathy Robert D. Hare Lifetime Achievement Award, all reflect the importance and impact of his work.

Perhaps even greater than Scott’s intellectual impact was his kindness and mentorship for those in the field. He guided his students on their professional paths, helping them attain success along their own tracks. He frequently gave of his time and good company to those who sought it. He generously provided career advice, letters of recommendation, and perspectives on the field and its history to those who asked. He also graciously served our society as board member and as president. He has helped guide the society’s path, growth, and promise to provide a home to vigorous and respectful scholarly debate. And with his vivid and fascinating stories about the roots of psychopathy research, he made sure that we would learn to imagine the future of psychopathy research by remembering its past.

Scott Lilienfeld’s light has brightened our field, which examines the darkest aspects of humanity. May his example continue to illuminate those who seek truth about psychopathy and so many other scholarly and human matters.

Society for the Scientific Study of Psychopathy, 2020

In loving memory of Dr. Lieke Nentjes

1986–2020

The chapter on Emotional functioning in psychopathy is a posthumous work led by Dr. Lieke Nentjes. Lieke, Carlo, and Dave began this work in 2016, inspired and led by Lieke’s initiative to clarify the complex literature on emotion and psychopathy, in an attempt to better our understanding and treatment hopes for psychopathic individuals. Lieke’s work was always driven by a genuine passion for science and for making a concrete impact on society. Already before defending her dissertation, she had started a position as Assistant Professor and began what would have certainly been a career of excellence. Most importantly, Lieke was so generous and collegial to favor collaboration over individual achievements. When she realized that she was already too sick to continue her academic work, one of her priorities became to ensure that the fruit of her work would not remain hidden in a shelf. She made sure to pass on all of her materials and progress to colleagues and friends around her who could ensure that her contribution would see the light, without requests of any sort. Her altruism and selflessness were so outstanding and humbling, in stark contrast with a culture of individualism and prestige that too often plagues academia. The chapter is the first, but not the last, example that Lieke is still with us and that her work will continue to inspire new generations of scholars. It is extremely saddening and heartbreaking that she will not be able to hold the fruit of her work in her hands, but her contribution to science and society will be everlasting, and her proud husband and family will treasure these printed pages. Not only her professional qualities but also her personal qualities that enriched the lives of everyone who has crossed paths with her are missed and irreplaceable. For her, we can only and must pay it forward, following her example of generosity, selflessness, and passion in our work as well as in our professional relationships.

Carlo Garofalo, 2021

---

a See also notes of appreciation for Scott at: https://www.kudoboard.com/boards/WI8hPMQ3.

About the editors

Paulo Barbosa Marques is a chartered clinical and forensic psychologist and a law enforcement officer. He began his law enforcement career serving as a frontline police officer in the Polícia de Segurança Pública (PSP) and later as a criminal investigator at the Criminal Investigation Department—Organized Crime Brigade. Paulo is now an inspector at the Serviço de Estrangeiros e Fronteiras (SEF), the Portuguese Immigration and Borders Service. He holds a master’s degree in law and security from the Faculty of Law—NOVA University of Lisbon, a postgraduate diploma in Internal Security, and specialized training in forensic psychological assessment and criminal investigation. Over the past years, his research has focused on the police officers’, prosecutors’, and judges’ perceptions of investigative interviewing operational practices and training needs in Portugal. Paulo is a founding member and a former Secretary-General of the Portuguese Society of Psychiatry and Psychology of Justice and an International Investigative Interviewing Research Group (iIIRG) Regional Champion for Portugal. He regularly presents at conferences to both academics and practitioners. He is a coeditor of Police Psychology: New Trends in Forensic Psychological Science.

Mauro Paulino is currently a coordinator at Mind, Institute of Clinical and Forensic Psychology (Lisbon, Portugal). He is also a forensic psychologist consultant at the Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal e Ciências Forenses, I.P. (Gabinete Médico-Legal e Forense Península Setúbal). Mauro received his master’s degree in legal medicine and forensic sciences at the University of Lisbon, Faculty of Medicine, completing his research in the field of spousal violence. He is a PhD student of Forensic Psychology at the Faculty of Psychology and Education Sciences, University of Coimbra (Portugal). He is also a member of the Center for Research in Neuropsychology and Cognitive Behavioral Intervention (CINEICC) and the Psychological Assessment and Psychometrics Laboratory (PsyAssessmentLab). He is an author and coordinator of several books and is a guest lecturer at various national and international universities.

Laura Alho is a clinical and forensic psychologist and holds a PhD in psychology, a master’s degree in forensic psychology, and a postgraduate degree in criminology. She has specialized training in criminal profiling, victimology, psychology of justice, and criminal investigation. Her line of research is psychology of testimony. She was assistant professor at Lusófona University of Humanities and Technologies and she is now an independent psychology professor, consultant and researcher at some educational and training entities. She is also an author and coordinator of some books and a guest lecturer at national and international conferences.

About the authors

Jonathan T. Alicchio is a recent alumnus of Marymount University with an MA in forensic and legal psychology with a concentration in intelligence studies. Under Dr. Holly Hargreaves Cormany’s mentorship, Jonathan has had continued participation in her team’s research throughout his graduate career and postgraduation. Prior to his graduate career, he had graduated from Montclair State University in 2018 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in psychology with a minor in criminal justice. Jonathan is currently employed in the field of education and is working toward a career within the criminal justice system.

James Beasley is an adjunct faculty member at Marymount University in Arlington, Virginia. He served for more than 30 years as a special agent in the FBI. For the latter half of his career, he was assigned to the Behavioral Analysis Unit in Quantico, VA, where he conducted behavioral assessments of offenders in violent crime investigations, including crimes against children, serial murder, serial rape, threats, and online criminal activities. He also conducted research through interviews with dozens of incarcerated offenders. He holds a B.S. degree in psychology from Central Missouri State University, and a master’s degree in public administration from the University of Missouri at Kansas City.

Henriette Bergstrøm is a senior lecturer in forensic psychology at the University of Derby in Derby, United Kingdom. Her main research interest is the study of psychopathy within a developmental and life-course (DLC) criminology perspective.

Ana Seara Cardoso is a researcher and lecturer at the Psychological Neuroscience Lab in the School of Psychology, University of Minho, Portugal. She holds a PhD from University College London and has been the recipient of doctoral and postdoctoral fellowships and research grants from the Foundation for Science and Technology (Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, FCT). Her research interests focus on the neurobiological basis of complex social cognitive processes and how dysfunction in these processes may be linked to persistent antisocial behavior. She is interested in understanding how neurocognitive correlates of empathy and morality develop from childhood to adulthood and of how variability in these neurocognitive correlates is linked to antisocial behavior in general, and to the development of psychopathy and antisocial personality disorder in particular.

Emily Corner is a senior lecturer of criminology at the Centre for Social Research and Methods at the Australian National University (ANU). Prior to joining the ANU, Emily was a research associate at the department of Security and Crime Science at University College London, working on projects examining lone and group-based terrorism, radicalization, mass murderers, and fixated individuals. Her doctoral research focused on examining mental disorders and terrorist behavior, and won her the Terrorism Research Initiative’s Thesis award in 2016. She has published in leading psychology, forensic science, criminology, threat assessment, and political science journals. She has worked on research projects funded by the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, the European Union, the National Institute of Justice, the US Department of Defense, and the Department of Home Affairs. Prior to her doctoral research, she worked across step-down, low-, and medium- secure psychiatric hospitals, in both inpatient and outpatient settings.

Raymond Corrado is a professor in the School of Criminology at Simon Fraser University. He has published more than 100 articles and book chapters on various policy issues, including juvenile justice, violent young offenders, mental health, adolescent psychopathy, victimization, child/adolescent case management strategies, and terrorism.

Ted B. Cunliffe, PhD, is a clinical and forensic psychologist licensed to practice in the State of Florida and is the current Associate Director of Clinical Training at Albizu University in Miami, Florida. For many years in addition to his academic work, he has provided expert witness services in various jurisdictions and courts within Florida and beyond on a full-time and part-time basis. He has provided assessment services and worked with forensic populations in a wide variety of settings, including juvenile detention centers, adult prisons, juvenile probation, and outreach programs in the community for more than 30 years. Specifically, he has served as Staff Psychologist and Mental Health Director at a wide number of correctional facilities in Florida, California, and Canada. Further, he has provided expert witness services to the Florida, California, and Virginia courts in the areas of competency to stand trial, not guilty by reason of insanity, dangerousness, death penalty, wrongful death, dependency, mitigation, and civil litigation.

Matt DeLisi is Distinguished Professor, College of Liberal Arts and Sciences Dean’s Professor, Coordinator of Criminal Justice, and Faculty Affiliate of the Center for the Study of Violence at Iowa State University. A renowned scholar, Professor DeLisi is one of the most influential and prolific criminologists in the world with more than 400 scholarly publications on an array of topics in the social, behavioral, and forensic sciences. He is the only scientist in the world who is Fellow of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences and the Association for Psychological Science.

Wyatt D'Emilia, PhD, graduated from the clinical psychology PhD program at Long Island University-Brooklyn. He is currently completing his postdoctoral residency in the PTSD clinic at the Albany Stratton VA Medical Center. His research is focused on coping and perceptions of control among individuals living in adverse or oppressive environments. His dissertation focused on identifying the efficacy of secondary control as a method for helping young adult women in the United States cope with experiences of sexist discrimination without incurring additional negative mental health outcomes.

John Edens, PhD, is a professor and former Director of Clinical Training in the Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences at Texas A&M University. He has published approximately 200 journal articles and book chapters, focused primarily on the interface between mental health, psychological assessment, and law and, per Essential Science Indicators, is among the top 1% of cited scientific researchers in psychology and psychiatry. Dr. Edens is a former recipient of the Saleem Shah Award for Early Career Contributions to Law and Psychology (American Psychology—Law Society) and the Theodore Millon Award in Personality Psychology (Society of Clinical Psychology). He is a fellow of the Association for Psychological Science and the American Psychological Association and a former associate editor of the journals Psychological Assessment, the Journal of Personality Assessment, and Assessment. He is also the lead author of the Personality Assessment Inventory Computerized Interpretive Report for Correctional Settings.

Jacob Eikenberry, MSW, is a social work PhD candidate focused on creating sustainable alternatives to incarceration and improving systems that interact with incarcerated populations. His research interests include exploring the intersection of trauma, mental health and substance abuse among justice-involved individuals, and peer mentorship/support as an activator of domains that support healthy transitions for individuals exiting the criminal justice system.

David P. Farrington, OBE, is Emeritus Professor of Psychological Criminology at Cambridge University. He has been President of the American Society of Criminology, President of the European Association of Psychology and Law, and President of the British Society of Criminology. He has received many prizes and awards, including the Stockholm Prize in Criminology. His major research interest is in developmental criminology, and he is Director of the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development, which is a prospective longitudinal survey of more than 400 London males from age 8 to age 61. In addition to 866 published journal articles and book chapters on criminological and psychological topics, he has published 117 books, monographs, and government publications and 163 shorter publications (total = 1146). According to Google Scholar on March 10, 2021, his publications have been cited a total of 113,271 times, and 750 of his works have been cited at least 10 times each.

Bryanna Fox is Associate Professor of Criminology at the University of South Florida. Dr. Fox earned her PhD from Cambridge University and is a former FBI special agent. Dr. Fox’s research on psychological risk factors for criminal behavior and evidence-based policing has been recognized with the 2014 Excellence in Law Enforcement Research Award from the International Association of Chiefs of Police and 2017 Early Career Award from the ASC Division of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology.

Carl B. Gacono, PhD, ABAP, formerly the Assessment Center Director (Atascadero State Hospital, CA), and a chief psychologist (FCI Bastrop, TX), worked more than 20 years in correctional and forensic psychiatric facilities. He is the coauthor of The Rorschach Assessment of Aggressive & Psychopathic Personalities, senior editor of the Handbook of Forensic Rorschach Assessment, author of The Clinical & Forensic Interview Schedule for The Hare PCL: Revised & Screening Version, editor of the Clinical & Forensic Assessment of Psychopathy: A Practitioner’s Guide, coauthor of Understanding Female Offenders, and author or coauthor of more than 100 articles and book chapters (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carl_Gacono). He is the recipient of the 1994 Beck Award and 2000 W. Klopfer Award. He is a member of the American Board of Assessment Psychology and a fellow of SPA. A noted artist, his paintings (carlgaconoart.com & carlgaconoart [Instagram]) have been exhibited and appeared on book covers. Dr. Gacono maintains a consulting practice in Asheville, NC, where he lives with his son, Jackson. Please visit maverickpsychology.com for webinar training.

Carlo Garofalo, PhD, graduated from Sapienza University of Rome (Italy) and is currently an assistant professor at Tilburg University, the Netherlands. He is a licensed clinical psychologist and his clinical and research interests are mainly focused on the relevance of emotion and personality pathology (especially psychopathy) for aggression and antisocial behavior, from a developmental psychopathology perspective. He serves as Associate Editor for the Journal of Criminal Justice and the International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology. He is currently a member of the European Association of Psychology and Law, member and part of the communication committee for the Society for the Scientific Study of Psychopathy, and founding member and cochair (together with Dr. Luna Centifanti) of the Section for the study and treatment of antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy for the European Society for the Study of Personality Disorders.

Nathanael Gaspar is a 2019 graduate from Marymount University’s Forensic and Legal Psychology Master’s Program. Nathanael helped conduct a research study that was presented at the American Psychology-Law Society’s 2019 Conference on the effectiveness of a Court Diversion program for juveniles. The research study examined the effectiveness of the program’s ability to decrease antisocial behavior and increase empathic response from juvenile participants. Nathanael previously worked in the field of threat assessment as a research analyst with Kiernan Group Holdings where they specialized in data analysis trends in digital behaviors and warning signs for active shooters since 1999. He currently works in the field of crime detection and prevention as an analyst for the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children’s Electronic Crimes Division.

Paul Gill is Professor of Security and Crime Science at University College London. He has more than 90 publications on the topic of terrorist behavior. He has conducted research funded by the Office for Naval Research, the Department of Homeland Security, DSTL, the European Union, the National Institute of Justice, CREST, Public Safety Canada, and MINERVA. He currently manages European Research Council Starter Grant project entitled GRIEVANCE. Collectively these grants have been worth over 9 million euro. These projects focused upon various aspects of terrorist behavior, including the IED development, creativity, terrorist network structures, risk assessment and management, and lone-actor terrorism. His doctoral research focused on the underlying individual and organizational motivations behind suicide bombing. This piece of research won the Jean Blondel Prize for the best PhD thesis in political science in Europe for 2010. He has published in leading psychology, criminology, and political science journals.

James Lynn Greenstone, EdD, JD, DABECI, CDM, has been in private practice for more than 55 years and is Diplomate of the Society for Police and Criminal Psychology. He serves as a professor in the Disaster and Emergency Management Program at Nova Southeastern University, College of Osteopathic Medicine. He is a supervisory mental health specialist with the NDMS Disaster Medical Assistance Team. Dr. Greenstone served as the Director of Psychological Services for the Fort Worth Police Department and has been a licensed and commissioned Peace Officer for more than 40 years. He is a trained hostage negotiator and has trained negotiators around the world. He recently retired as a colonel with the Texas Medical Brigade, Texas Military Forces. His current books include The Elements of Police Hostage and Crisis Negotiations, The Elements of Crisis Intervention: Crises and How to Respond to Them, 3rd edition, and The Elements of Disaster Psychology: Managing Psychosocial Trauma. Dr. Greenstone is also the Editor-in-Chief Emeritus of The Journal of Police Crisis Negotiations, and current editor of the Journal of Police Emergency Response: International Journal of Hostage Negotiations and Crisis Intervention. Additionally, he served on the editorial boards of Military Medicine and the International Journal of Emergency Mental Health.

Sara Chiara Haden, PhD, is an associate professor at Long Island University, Brooklyn. She completed her doctoral degree in clinical psychology at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech) after receiving her MA in psychology from the University of Massachusetts. Dr. Haden’s research focuses on the effects of exposure to community violence as well as risk and protective factors involved in the development of aggressive behavior in children. She is a licensed psychologist in New York. Her clinical experience includes work with sex offenders, survivors of torture and war trauma, psychiatric emergency patients, pediatric HIV clinic clients, primary care patients, mentally ill offenders, and adult male prisoners.

Robert D. Hare, CM, PhD, is Emeritus Professor of Psychology, University of British Columbia. He has devoted most of his academic career to investigating psychopathy, its nature, assessment, and implications for mental health, criminal justice, and society. Although retired, he continues his research with international colleagues. He is the author of several books, including Psychopathy: Theory and Research, Without Conscience, and (with Paul Babiak) Snakes in Suits, 2nd edition. In addition, he has authored or coauthored more than 300 chapters and scientific articles on psychopathy, is the developer of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R), and a coauthor of its derivatives, the Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version, the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version, the Antisocial Process Screening Device, and Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (SRP-4). He has consulted with criminal justice agencies in many countries, and received many national and international awards and honors, including induction into the Order of Canada.

Holly Hargreaves-Cormany is Assistant Professor of Forensic and Legal Psychology at Marymount University. She previously served as a research fellow with the Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education. She is a licensed clinical professional counselor with a PhD in counseling and master’s degrees in forensic psychology and community counseling. She has published and conducted research studies on the sex trafficking of juveniles, the association between animal cruelty and interpersonal violence, humane education, and animal-assisted therapy/intervention programs and has presented such research at national and international conferences. Dr. Hargreaves-Cormany uses her clinical experience practicing as a psychotherapist in private practice to inform her teaching and research.

Katie Holzer is a research instructor in the Division of Clinical and Translational Research at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis and a licensed clinical social worker in the State of Missouri. She is also the Director of the Center for Perioperative Mental Health. Her research has contributed to the understanding of the applicability of diagnostic criteria for older adults with investigations into the diagnosis of personality disorders. Her recent work in this area focuses on antisocial personality disorder among older adults and the exclusion of this population from evaluations of the psychometric properties of personality disorder assessments.

Aaron J. Kivisto, PhD, is a forensic and clinical psychologist and Associate Professor of Clinical Psychology at the University of Indianapolis. His research focuses on a range of forensic issues, including violence risk assessment and management with individuals with serious mental illness, suicide prevention, the motivations and psychiatric characteristics of fatal and nonfatal intimate partner violence perpetrators, risk management of those who stalk and threaten mental health professionals, evaluation of competency to stand trial, and the admissibility of psychological testing in legal contexts. He maintains a private practice specializing in forensic psychological evaluation in Indianapolis, Indiana.

Dave Kosson is Professor of Psychology at Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science. His research focuses on the cognitive, emotional, interpersonal, and developmental mechanisms underlying psychopathy and other personality disorders. He has authored more than 100 articles in peer-reviewed journals and coauthored the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version. He also developed the Interpersonal Measure of Psychopathy along with interpersonal measures of several other personality disorders. He is a past president of the Society for the Scientific Study of Psychopathy and has served as President of the Aftermath Foundation since 2006.

Scott O. Lilienfeld was born and raised in New York City. He received his BA in psychology from Cornell University in 1982 and his PhD in psychology (clinical) from the University of Minnesota in 1990. He completed his clinical internship at Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, from 1986 to 1987. He was Assistant Professor in the Department of Psychology at State University of New York (SUNY) at Albany from 1990 to 1994, and was a faculty member in the Department of Psychology at Emory since 1994. He was also a visiting fellow at the University of Melbourne in Australia. Dr. Lilienfeld was a Samuel Candler Dobbs Professor of Psychology at Emory. He was Editor-in-Chief of the APS journal Clinical Psychological Science and Associate Editor of the APA journal Archives of Scientific Psychology; he also sat on the editorial boards of several journals, including American Psychologist. He was a president of the Society for a Science of Clinical Psychology (Section 3 of APA Division 12) and the Society for the Scientific Study of Psychopathy. He was a fellow of, and Executive Board Member of, the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry and a Consulting Editor for Skeptical Inquirer magazine. He was also a member of the Executive Committee of the Heterodox Academy.

Patrick Lussier is Professor of criminology at the School of Social Work and Criminology at Université Laval, Canada. In 2005, Professor Lussier received the Academic Gold Medal from the Governor General of Canada for the excellence of his PhD dissertation. Since 2019, he is the Editor of the Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice. His field of expertise is at the intersection of criminology and criminal justice and includes, among other things, the etiology of criminal conduct, sexual offending, risk assessment and management, and quantitative research methods.

Evita March, PhD, is a senior lecturer and researcher of psychology and is currently employed at Federation University Australia, Victoria, Berwick Campus. Evita’s areas of research expertise include cyberpsychology, personality, and interpersonal relationships.

Cynthia Mathieu, PhD, is Professor of Organizational Behavior, Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, Canada. She consults with organizations, teaches, and actively engages in research and publications on employee selection and well-being, organizational fraud, leadership, narcissism, and psychopathy in the workplace. She is the author of the book Dark Personalities in the Workplace. Additional information on her work and on dark personalities in the workplace can be found at cynthiamathieu.com.

Evan McCuish is an assistant professor at Simon Fraser University and is the Principal Investigator of the Incarcerated Serious and Violent Young Offender Study. He is the recipient of the Simon Fraser University Dean’s Convocation Medal for Academic Excellence, the American Psychology-Law Society Outstanding Dissertation Award, and the American Society of Criminology Division of Developmental and Life Course Criminology Early Career Award. His research interests include criminal careers, desistance, developmental criminology, foster care, gang involvement, psychopathy, sexual offending, and violence.

Shelby E. McDonald, PhD, is Director of the Children, Families, and Animals Research (CFAR) Group, LLC, in Richmond, Virginia, and a faculty affiliate of the Virginia Commonwealth University (VCU) Department of Psychology and VCU School of Social Work. She is also Director of Research in the Department of Strategy and Research at the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals®. Her research centers on the role of human-animal interaction in human health and wellbeing, particularly during the developmental periods of childhood and emerging adulthood.

Kara Meadows studied psychology and criminology at The Pennsylvania State University. She then became a research assistant at The George Washington University in the Early Childhood & Development Lab examining callous-unemotional traits and behaviors. She went on to earn a master’s degree in forensic and legal psychology from Marymount University, where she collaborated with Dr. Hargreaves-Cormany and her colleagues on the present publication, Psychopathy and Criminal Behavior: Current Trends and Challenges. Kara currently works for the federal government as an analyst at The United States Sentencing Commission in Washington, DC.

J. Reid Meloy, PhD, ABPP, is a clinical professor of psychiatry at the University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, and a faculty member of the San Diego Psychoanalytic Center. He has been a consultant to the FBI Behavioral Analysis Units for the past two decades. His most recent coedited book (with Dr. Jens Hoffmann) is the International Handbook of Threat Assessment, 2nd edition (Oxford University Press, 2021).

Princess-Kasharáe Middleton has graduated Magna Cum Laude with a degree in political science at Spelman College, United States. In 2017, she was accredited a Juris Doctor degree from North Carolina Central University School of Law. She is attending the forensic psychology program at Marymount University. Although she has been quite busy with her schooling, over the past 15 years, she has dedicated her life to researching the laws, politics, and policies surrounding international and domestic criminal justice reform.

Leslie C. Morey is Professor of Psychology at Texas A&M University. He received his PhD in clinical psychology from the University of Florida, and has served on the faculty at Vanderbilt University, Harvard Medical School, the Yale University School of Medicine, and the University of Tulsa. He has published more than 200 articles, books, and chapters on the assessment and diagnosis of mental disorders, and his work has been cited in the scientific literature more than 5000 times. He is the author of the Personality Assessment Inventory (1991), Personality Assessment Screener (1997), the Personality Assessment Inventory-Adolescent (2007), the Interpretive Guide to the Personality Assessment Inventory (1996), and Essentials of PAI Assessment (2003).

Lieke Nentjes, PhD, graduated from the University of Maastricht, the Netherlands, and subsequently held a position of Assistant Professor of Clinical Forensic Psychology at the University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Her research work lay at the intersection of experimental, clinical, and forensic psychology, with special interest in the role of emotional functioning for psychopathy and other personality disorders in offenders. Her work has been published in top-tier journals in the fields of psychiatry, clinical psychology, and criminology/forensic psychology. She was a member of the Society for the Scientific Study of Psychopathy. She was coauthor (with Prof. Dr. David Bernstein) of the manual for the adaptation of Schema Therapy for forensic patients with personality disorders. Lieke passed away on March 5, 2020, at the age of 33, after fighting with a terminal illness.

Craig S. Neumann is Distinguished Research Professor at the University of North Texas (UNT) and has been actively teaching, supervising, and conducting research in the Clinical Psychology Graduate Training Program at UNT for more than 20 years. He has been consistently funded by The William H. Donner Foundation, has published more than 130 peer-reviewed journal articles and dozens of book chapters, and has given invited talks throughout North America and Europe. His research on personality and personality pathology had made substantial international impact. His latest research explores the motivational nature of light (vs dark) personality traits and processes that build resilience.

James R.P. Ogloff, AM, JD, PhD, is trained as clinical and forensic psychologist and lawyer. He is the University Distinguished Professor and Director of the Centre for Forensic Behavioural Science at Swinburne University and Executive Director of Psychological Services and Research at Forensicare. He has worked in the field for more than 35 years and began studying and working with psychopaths in the 1980s. He has published 18 books and more than 300 articles and chapters in forensic psychology and forensic mental health. His research has been very influential in the fields of forensic psychology and forensic mental health. He has held many editorial and professional leadership roles and has received numerous awards for his work, including distinguished contribution awards in forensic psychology from peak bodies in Australia, Canada, and the United States.

Mark Olver, PhD, is Professor and Registered Doctoral Psychologist in the Clinical Psychology Program at the University of Saskatchewan, Canada, where he is involved in graduate and undergraduate research supervision, teaching, administration, clinical training, and applied forensic research. Prior to his academic appointment, Mark worked as a clinical psychologist in various capacities, including providing assessment, treatment, and consultation services for young offenders in the Saskatoon Health Region and for adult federal offenders in the Correctional Service of Canada. He has published more than 150 journal articles and book chapters and his research interests include offender risk assessment and treatment, young offenders, psychopathy, and the evaluation of therapeutic change. He is the codeveloper of the Violence Risk Scale-Sexual Offense version (VRS-SO) and the Violence Risk Scale-Youth Sexual Offense version (VRS-YSO), and he provides training and consultation services internationally in the assessment and treatment of high psychopathy, sexual, and violent offending populations.

Terri Patterson is a principal in the Washington, DC, office of Control Risks, a global crisis and risk consultancy. A recently retired special agent with the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), Terri has over two decades of experience leading law enforcement operations, strategic programs, and critical incident preparedness. She is a recognized expert in behavioral assessment and risk mitigation, with a specialization in global security solutions to combat criminal and national security threat actors. Terri holds a PhD in legal psychology from Florida International University in Miami, Florida, and is a member of the American Psychological Association (APA) and American Psychology and Law Society (APLS).

David C. Pyrooz is an Associate Professor of Sociology and faculty associate of Prevention Science Program at the Institute of Behavioral Science at the University of Colorado Boulder. His research interests are in the areas of gangs and criminal networks, incarceration and prisoner reentry, and developmental and life-course criminology. He is the coauthor of Competing for Control: Gangs and the Social Order of Prisons (Cambridge University Press) and On Gangs (Temple University Press).

David Rowlands has a background in clinical practice, working for 15 years in the substance misuse field. After leaving clinical practice in 2016, he completed his PhD at the University of Huddersfield, studying identity processes in addiction recovery. His research interests include narrative and social identity processes. He currently works as a postdoctoral research fellow at Keele University.

Adriana Sampaio, MD, PhD, is the lab director of the Psychological Neuroscience Lab (https://psychologicalneurosciencelab.weebly.com/) in the School of Psychology, University of Minho, Portugal. Her main research is in the field of developmental cognitive neuroscience, namely in the structural and neurofunctional and genetic basis of (ab)normal cognitive and emotional processes. In particular, using cutting-edge technologies that combine morphometric with functional neuroimaging measures, her work aims to map specific neurodevelopmental processes associated with normal higher cognitive function and their age-related trajectories, by looking at the dynamic interplay between genetic, biological, and environmental factors that shape brain development. As part of her work, Adriana Sampaio has published more than a hundred articles in ISI journals, collaborating with several research teams (Spain, France, the United Kingdom, Brazil, and the United States). She is the principal investigator of several projects funded by FCT and Fundação Bial. She was also awarded for her work in the area of research in psychology.

Mário R. Simões is Full Professor at the University of Coimbra—Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences (FPCEUC), Director of PsyAssessmentLab, PI of the Research Group Neuropsychological Assessment and Ageing Processes of the Center for Research in Neuropsychology and Cognitive Behavioral Intervention of the University of Coimbra, and responsible for the FPCEUC Neuropsychological Assessment Consultation, which responds to requests from the Courts. He participated actively as a principal investigator of projects with external funding and/or as a supervisor of doctoral theses and master’s dissertations in research that led to the adaptation and/or validation of tests and other (neuro) psychological assessment instruments for the Portuguese population in forensic, educational, and clinical contexts. His teaching activities include the following courses: Psychological Assessment and Forensic Expertise, Neuropsychological Assessment, and Assessment Instruments and Psychological Reports.

Jason M. Smith, PsyD, ABPP, since 2014, has worked as a licensed clinical psychologist (currently Chief Psychologist) for a Correctional Prison in West Virginia, United States, where he has continued treating, assessing, and managing incarcerated women. With his coauthors, he has published on female offenders/psychopathy as well as theoretical Rorschach articles. He is on the Board of Assessors for Rorschachiana and has received board certification from the American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP) in clinical psychology. Dr. Smith has presented his research and workshops on assessing and treating female offenders both nationally and internationally. He is the senior author of Understanding Female Offenders: Psychopathy, Criminal Behavior, Assessment, and Treatment. He was awarded the APA Division 18 Criminal Justice Section Outstanding Dissertation Award (2014) and the SPA John E. Exner Scholar Award (2019). Please visit maverickpsychology.com for our webinar trainings.

Michel St-Yves is a forensic psychologist working with the Behavioural Analysis Unit of the Sûreté du Québec (Quebec’s provincial police force), offering support in criminal investigations, both by profiling suspects and by preparing police interrogations. He also teaches the psychology of investigative interviews at the École nationale de police du Québec (Quebec Police Academy) and is a lecturer at the Department of Criminology of Université de Montréal. He has participated in the creation of the first continuing education training program in matters of investigative interviews in Switzerland, where he has been a training instructor since 2007. He also acts as Deputy Chair of the Scientific Committee of the International investigative interviewing research group (iIIRG). His publications, in both French and English, deal mainly with the psychology of criminal investigations, crisis negotiation, and investigative interviews.

Jeff Thompson, PhD, is Adjunct Associate Research Scientist at the Molecular Imaging and Neuropathology Division of the New York State Psychiatric Institute at the Columbia University Irving Medical Center. He is a 16-year law enforcement veteran detective with the New York City Police Department (NYPD) and a former hostage negotiator. In his current role at the NYPD, Detective Thompson is currently the first-ever Mental Health and Wellness Coordinator. He is also a professor at Lipscomb University and New York University, researcher, and trainer.

Sophia Tkazky, PhD, MBPsS, CPsychol, is a lecturer in forensic psychology in the School of Health, Psychology and Social Care, University of Derby. Before she joined this university in 2019, she was a PhD candidate and a research associate at the International Centre for Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling. Sophia also works as a consultant in the Agis Consultancy Ltd. and as an assistant editor of the Journal for Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling. Her main research interests are offenders’ narratives and the methods of elicitation and interpretation of these narratives, the narrative manifestations of the Dark Triad, and psychology of persuasion and manipulation. Her research activities currently are primarily focused on the offenders’ characteristics and crime scene behaviors and on the narratives of crime (e.g., crime descriptions) and life personal experiences (e.g., general life narratives or neutral episodes).

Jennifer J. Tostlebe is a doctoral candidate in the Department of Sociology at the University of Colorado Boulder. She received her BA in interdisciplinary studies in criminology and criminal justice and her MS in sociology from Iowa State University. Her research interests are in the areas of incarceration and prisoner reentry, mental and physical health, and gangs and criminal networks. Currently, her work investigates the intersection of social influences and individual characteristics and how they independently and interactively impact illicit activity during incarceration and postrelease.

Tiffany N. Truong is a 4th-year PhD student in clinical psychology at Texas A&M University. Her research primarily focuses on psychological assessment in forensic and correctional settings. She is particularly interested in the use of personality testing to predict maladaptive behaviors among justice-involved individuals, as well as the potentially stigmatizing effects of the label psychopath and its associated personality traits on legal decision-making.

Margarida Vasconcelos is a postdoctoral researcher at the Psychological Neuroscience Lab in the School of Psychology, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal. Margarida has a doctoral degree in basic psychology and has developed research in the main area of cognitive neuroscience. Her research has been dedicated to investigate the effects of musical expertise on neuroplasticity, particularly the transfer effects from music to language. In this realm, Margarida has investigated the electrophysiological correlates of auditory statistical learning in both children and adults. More recently, her research focus turned to social cognition, namely to the investigation of the neural bases of moral judgment and emotions, and social decision-making, in collaboration with Ana Seara-Cardoso, PhD. Currently, she also investigates the mechanisms of memory suppression in binge drinkers and alcohol-dependent individuals using behavioral measures and neuroimaging techniques.

Michael G. Vaughn, PhD, is Professor and Director of the PhD program in the School of Social Work, College for Public Health and Social Justice, Saint Louis University. He is the author of 8 books and more than 500 scholarly papers. He is a fellow of the American Academy of Social Work and Social Welfare and Fellow of the Society for Social Work and Research. His agenda comprises several interrelated foci such as temperament and psychopathy, drug use, violence, school dropout, biosocial interplay in human behavior, and epidemiologic studies of health and criminal justice.

Ryan Veal is a sessional academic with the Centre for Forensic Behavioural Science at Swinburne University of Technology and psychologist (clinical and forensic registrar) with Forensicare. He has an interest in the area of personality assessment relative to violent behavior and recidivism, having recently completed his Doctorate of Psychology (Clinical and Forensic) at the Centre for Forensic Behavioural Science in which he contributed to the research on the reliability and validity of the Psychopathy Checklist measures in Australia.

Ellen Wood is a recent alumna of Marymount University where she served as the student leader for Dr. Holly Hargreaves-Cormany’s research team. She graduated in 2020 with an MA in forensic and legal psychology, following the completion of her BSc from Bluefield College in criminal justice, psychology, and forensic science in 2018. She is currently employed as a forensic interviewer and family advocate at a Children’s Advocacy Center in Virginia.

Donna Youngs is a senior lecturer at the University of Kingston, London, specializing in investigative psychology. Her research interests include the modeling of psychological styles of criminal action and the analysis of underlying criminal narratives. She coauthored the first text on investigative psychology (with David Canter) in 2009 and currently edits the Journal of Investigative Psychology.

Foreword

Robert D. Hare

The usual purpose of a Foreword is to comment on the nature and contents of a book or, in this case, an edited volume, which I will do. However, the authors uniformly have produced chapters that are highly informative, self-contained, and speak for themselves, thus providing me with the opportunity to comment on several issues I consider relevant to the topics contained herein. I thank the editors for giving me the latitude to take this route. In a sense, they have allowed me to write a mini-chapter, one that supplements rather than summarizes what already is an excellent compendium of essential reading for those involved in the criminal justice system. Parenthetically, I first met Paulo Marques at the inaugural conference of the Portuguese Society of Psychiatry and Psychology of Justice in Porto, 2007, and the following PCL-R Workshop organized by him and Rui Abrunhosa Gonçalves.

I begin with some words in memory of Scott Lilienfeld, the author of the Afterword for this book. Scott passed away on September 30, 2020, several months after completing his contribution to this volume. He was a prominent and outstanding psychologist with a vast impact on behavioral science and a commentator on public awareness of science and pseudoscience. Articles he co-authored during his illness are making their way through the publication process. Before his death, friends and colleagues posted an E-Card with comments, pictures, anecdotes, and expressions of deep appreciation and respect for him and his extraordinary works. A large number of posts to the E-Card is a testament to the esteem and affection in which so many people held him. My post noted that Scott’s remarkable body of theory and research had become enduring contributions to psychological science and society. His intellect and insights into the human condition were inspirational, far-reaching, and wonderfully expressed in his writings and warm interactions with colleagues, students, and scholars. I was pleased to be a co-author with him on an article detailing Hervey Cleckley’s influence on current conceptualizations of psychopathy (Lilienfeld, Watts, Smith, Patrick, & Hare, 2018). The link to the E-Card is https://www.kudoboard.com/boards/WI8hPMQ3.

When I began research on psychopathy more than five decades ago, only a few dozen published empirical articles on the topic appeared each year. I could complete a literature search in a few hours, even though it meant a walk through the library stacks—endless rows of bookshelves, thankfully unfamiliar to recent generations—to find and make xerox copies of the latest articles. Correspondence with other researchers was by mail and slow; there was no internet. Researchers and commentators used several measures of psychopathy, mainly construct ratings, psychiatric diagnoses, and self-report scales. However, these instruments did not measure the same construct (Hare, 1985), an example of the jingle fallacy in which instruments with the same name (e.g., psychopathy) measure different or weakly related constructs. In their discussion of this fallacy, along with the jangle fallacy (different terms, same construct), Larsen and Bong (2016, p. 529) stated, The problem of detecting whether two behavioral constructs reference the same real-world phenomenon has existed for over 100 years. Discordant naming of constructs is here termed the construct identity fallacy. Compounding the problem, at least in my view, was the uncertain connection between various measures and the traditional clinical construct of psychopathy, as exemplified by Cleckley’s (1941, 1976) writings and other influential clinicians.

The situation began to change in the 1970s, with the development of a research scale based on clinical tradition, the extensive experience my students and I had working with offenders at a prison near Vancouver, and concern about what we were trying to measure. The result was a 22-item construct rating scale, first described at a 1979 meeting in Europe attended by Hans Eysenck. He asked me to submit an article to his new journal, Personality and Individual Differences. The scale, now commonly referred to as the Psychopathy Checklist (PCL; Hare, 1980), was the predecessor to the PCL-R (Hare, 1991, 2003). Direct clinical/forensic derivatives of the PCL-R included the Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL: SV; Hart, Cox, & Hare, 1995) and the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL: YV; Forth, Kosson, & Hare, 2003). Collectively, these PCL instruments began to facilitate communications among clinicians and researchers by providing them with a standard metric. Even if some were not in agreement with our formulations, they knew what we meant when we referred to psychopathy. Sleep, Weiss, Lynam, and Miller (2019, p. 1) noted, Hare’s theoretical and empirical work, especially the development of the Psychopathy Checklist and its revision (PCL/PCL-R; Hare, 1980, 2003), allowed a robust empirical literature on psychopathy to develop. This sharp expansion in research also owes much to the introduction and widespread use of self-report measures of psychopathy, some based on the PCL-R and others on general personality theory or as part of an omnibus inventory (Sleep et al., 2019). Together, they helped to extend and broaden interest and research on psychopathy and to illustrate its enormous implications for all segments of society. A significant development was the Society for the Scientific Study of Psychopathy (SSSP), which held its first meeting in Vancouver in 2005. SSSP has become a vibrant, multidisciplinary, and multinational organization that strongly values active student participation, The latter is apparent in students’ high proportion of conference presentations and their joint authorship of chapters and journal articles. By the end of 2020, the cumulative total of psychopathy articles exceeded 8000, with a yearly rate of over 600 (Web of Science).

The PCL-R is an integral part of the nomological network of psychopathy and an international standard for clinicians and researchers. Nevertheless, it is by no means the only instrument in wide use. As Miller and Lynam (2015, p. 585) noted: In general, the modern literature on psychopathy is impressive for the varied nature of assessment methods used. Indeed, this is good for science, but only if the tools have well-established theoretical and psychometric properties and empirical correlates relevant to the construct they purport to measure. They form part of a frame of reference for delineating the construct and guiding its use in basic and applied settings. Unfortunately, not all measures of psychopathy meet scientific and psychometric standards. Their positions in the nomological network (or networks) are uncertain, raising again the possibility of construct identity fallacy. As stated by Larsen and Bong (2016, p. 552), failure to appreciate the consequences of this fallacy may contribute to (1) confusion, misunderstandings, and conceptual messes in research; (2) waste of scientific time; and (3) difficulty in theory unification and knowledge cumulation.

Additionally, early research, including my own, treated psychopathy as a unidimensional construct. Although I had reported that the PCL comprised several factors, some were difficult to interpret (Hare, 1980). Later, Harpur, Hakstian, and Hare (1988), using more sophisticated analyses, determined that two correlated factors underpinned the PCL: Factor 1, A selfish, callous, and remorseless use of others: and Factor 2, A chronically unstable and antisocial lifestyle (p. 745). Harpur, Hare, and Hakstian (1989) replicated this finding and demonstrated that the factors, or dimensions, had different patterns of correlations with a variety of clinical, self-report, demographic, and experimental data. Lilienfeld (2018, p. 80) said of the latter, This seminal publication was the first to highlight the dual points that (a) psychopathy comprises more than one dimension, and (b) these subfactors often display psychologically important differential correlates. Most measures of psychopathy now are multifaceted (Miller & Lynam, 2015), although a researcher may find it helpful to treat the score on a particular scale as unidimensional. This procedure provides interpretative problems. As noted by Smith, McCarthy, and Zapolski (2009, p. 273), the use of a single score to represent a multidimensional scale is likely to have reduced scientific value.

The structures of psychopathy scales differ from one another, often following the conceptual views and experiences of a particular investigator or group. As indicated in this volume and elsewhere, some scales include positive attributes or exclude overt antisocial features, whereas others do not (see DeLisi, 2019; Felthous & Sass, 2021; Gacono, 2016; Patrick, 2018). In many cases, researchers use the PCL-R and its factor structure to validate these other scales. Modern item-level modeling procedures have provided strong evidence for a correlated four-factor model of the PCL-R and its derivatives (Hare, 2003; Hare, Neumann, & Mokros, 2018; Higgs, Tully, & Browne, 2018; Neumann, Hare, & Pardini, 2015; Roy, Hare, Pardini, & Neumann, 2021). Further, structural equation modeling (SEM) indicates that these first-order dimensions (Interpersonal, Affective, Lifestyle, and Antisocial) underpin a single superordinate psychopathy factor (Hare et al., 2018; Neumann, Hare, & Newman, 2007). It is also possible to use these four factors to model a higher-order two-factor model consistent with the original two-factor model described above.

We can also subject the four-factor scores to latent profile analysis (LPA), a person-centered method that reveals homogenous subgroups of individuals that vary in expressions of psychopathic features (Mokros, Hare, Neumann, & Habermeyer, 2021; Neumann, Vitacco, & Mokros, 2016). For example, in the first LPA study of the PCL-R factors, Mokros et al. (2015) identified two profiles among offenders with a PCL-R score of 30 or higher. We labeled the profiles Manipulative and Aggressive, respectively, and considered each a variation on the theme of psychopathy. When we lowered the cut score to 27, a third profile emerged, consistent with Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD). When applied to the full range of PCL-R scores, four latent classes typically appeared, labeled Prototypic Psychopathic, Callous-Conning, Externalizing, and General offenders (Mokros et al., 2021; Neumann et al., 2016; Roy et al., 2021). Importantly, these latent profiles have theoretically meaningful associations with various external variables (Hare et al., 2018; Krstic et al., 2018; Neumann et al., 2016; Roy et al., 2021; Vitacco, Neumann, & Jackson, 2005). The LPA of the PCL factors can provide valuable information about subtypes of the individuals described in several chapters in this volume.

The current volume consists of uniformly excellent chapters written by a stellar group of clinicians, researchers, and experts with a strong background in law enforcement. Many authors have produced or edited similar volumes of their own. Some authors deal with issues concerning the assessment of psychopathy and its many roles in the criminal justice system, including risk assessment, sentencing, release decisions, and management/treatment issues. Others discuss etiological, neurobiological, and developmental factors and processes relevant to understanding the nature of psychopathy. Of particular interest is incorporating psychopathy into the realms of criminology, corporate behavior, hostage taking, cybercrime,