Bosnian Phoenix: How Bosnia Saved Europe and Made Possible the Modern Age

By Miljan Peter Ilich

Bosnia-Herzegovina is a small country chat's had an amazing inJluence on

the history of Europe a11d the world. le formed the heart of Shakespeare's Illyria.

<

• Language: English
• Publisher: Pen Culture Solutions
• Release date: Mar 29, 2022
• ISBN: 9781638122210

Book preview

cover.jpg

Bosnian Phoenix

How Bosnia Saved Europe and Made Possible the Modern Age

Copyright © 2022 by Miljan Peter Ilich.

Paperback ISBN: 978-1-63812-220-3

Ebook ISBN: 978-1-63812-221-0

All rights reserved. No part in this book may be produced and transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

The views expressed in this work are solely those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher hereby disclaims any responsibility for them.

Published by Pen Culture Solutions 03/29/2022

Pen Culture Solutions

1-888-727-7204 (USA)

1-800-950-458 (Australia)

[e-mail]

In Memoriam

Zafer Kadragich, a proud Bosnian who inspired me with the amazing story of Bosnia

I wish to thank my Mother, Etty Kadragich, for all her support

My wife, Grace Ilich, for her unfailing help and faith, and

Belkis Vasquez for her invaluable work in manuscript production

Much appreciation to The Columbia University Library and Staff

for their assistance in research

Don Branimir Marinović was extremely helpful in providing Latin translations of medieval

documents, for which I am grateful

Special thanks to the Family of Zafer Kadragich,

especially Mirsad and Adila Plevljak and Perna and Mugdim Plevljak

for their aid in obtaining relevant images of Bosnia

Many other people assisted in different stages of this project and I wish to express my

appreciation to all of them

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

1Historical Map of Bosnia-Herzegovina

2Bosnian Bogomil Tombstones

3Coat of Arms of Medieval Bosnia According to Sir Arthur Evans

4St Sava of Serbia

5Fortress of Bobovac, Bosnia, from a Distance

6Close Up of Bobovac

7Castle of Bobovac. ca. 1340-Part of Original Walls

8Death of Bosnian Great Ban Stephen Kotramanić II in Relief at St. Simeon Shrine in Zadar, Croatia

9Shrine of St Simeon 1380 Scenes of Medieval Bosnian Life

10Coin of Tvrtko I of Bosnia

11Prince Lazar of Serbia

12Kosovo Battlefield Looking Towards the Ottoman Positions

13Bosnian Grand Duke Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić

14King Stephen Tomaš of Bosnia

15Christ Adored by Bosnian King Stephen Tomašević

16Royal Seal of Bosnian King Tvrtko II

17Walls of Jajce, Which Resisted Turkish Conquest for More Than a Generation

18View Below Walls of Jajce

19View From Inside Jajce’s Walls

20Christ and His Mother Medieval Bosnian Christian Art

21Crucifixion. Medieval Bosnian Religious Art

22Mehmed the Conqueror and His Court

Contents

INTRODUCTION: BOSNIAN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES

Methodology and Sources

Chapter 1GENESIS

Illyrians

Roman Rule

Huns

Goths

Bessi

Chapter 2SLAVIC FOUNDATIONS

Franks

Bulgarians

Zahumlje

Croats

Chapter 3BOSNIAN BOGOMILISM: ORIGINS OF A RELIGION THAT LAID THE BASIS FOR PROTESTANTISM AND THE MODERN WESTERN WORLD

Sources on Bosnian Bogomilism

Bogomilism: Origins and Spread

Chapter 4BOGOMILISM IN BOSNIA

Bosnian Bogomil Doctrine

They Damned John the Baptist.

Slavic Sources for the Bosnian Church

Chapter 5BOSNIAN BOGOMILISM’S STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS, AND INTERNATIONAL ROLE.

Functions of the Bosnian Bogomil Church

The Secular Role of the Bosnian Church

The Bosnian Church and Europe

Chapter 6THE RISE OF THE BOSNIAN STATE TO THE END OF THE REIGN OF BAN KULIN

Ban Borić

Kulin Ban

Chapter 7THE CRUSADES AGAINST BOSNIA AND BAN NINOSLAV

Matthew Ninoslav

Chapter 8THE AGE OF DISUNION

A Multiplicity of Rulers

A King in Exile

Rise of the Šubić Family

Hum to 1300

Chapter 9THE RISE OF THE KOTROMANIĆ DYNASTY

Chapter 10BAN STEPHEN II KOTROMANIĆ

Government and Administration

The Economy of Stephen II’s Bosnia

Ragusan Relations

Heresy and the Church

Pope John XXII sent the young Ban a letter:

Foreign Policy

Stephen II Kotromanić between Hungary and Venice.

Chapter 11BOSNIAN CAMELOT: BAN TVRTKO

Consolidation of Power

Tvrtko Versus the Greatest Hungarian King

The Bosnian Crusade of King Louis I

Revolt Against Tvrtko: Brother Against Brother

The Revolt and Foreign Policy

Tvrtko and Serbia

Ban Tvrtko and Knez Lazar

Tvrtko and Lazar As Allies In War

Chapter 12BOSNIAN WARS WITH THE OTTOMAN TURKS

A Chain of Victories

The First Bosnian Triumph

The Battle of Pločnik

The Battles of Rudine and Bileća

Chapter 13THE BATTLE OF KOSOVO: A NEW INTERPRETATION

The Battles of Kosovo and Serbia

Geography

The 1389 War in Kosovo

The Kosovo Tradition

Why Did the Ottomans Go To Kosovo?

Prelude to Battle

Who Fought At Kosovo?

What was the Proportion of Bosnians

      in the Defending Army at Kosovo?

Ottoman Forces at Kosovo

Was the Kosovo Conflict Lost by Prince Lazar?

Kosovo: Battle Or War?

Eve of the Final Conflict

Eve of Battle: The Issues Emerge

The Fighting At Kosovo

Warfare at Kosovo

Victory or Defeat

Chapter 14THE CROATIAN AND MONTENEGRIN MOVEMENT FOR UNION WITH BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

Origin of the Croatian Liberation Struggle: The Ustaše

Intensification of the War in Croatia

Montenegrin Areas and Bosnia

Turning of the Tide Against Sigismund

The Struggle for Split

The Diplomacy of Tvrtko’s Bosnia

Growing Ethnic Ties Between Bosnians, Croats and Serbs

Weakening of the Alliance Against Hungary

The Triumph of Bosnia In Croatia

Chapter 15DEATH AND LEGACY OF STEPHEN TVRTKO I, KING OF BOSNIA, CROATIA AND THE SERBS

King Tvrtko I: A Concluding Evaluation

Bosnia, the Strongest Balkan State

Bosnia, the South Slavs, and the Balkans

Bosnia and Europe: Guardian of the Gate

King Tvrtko, the Forgotten Man

Chapter 16KING STEPHEN DABIŠA AND QUEEN JELENA GRUBA: THE BOSNIAN KINGDOM STRUGGLES TO SURVIVE.

King Stephen Dabiša

Centrifugal Tendencies of Nobles

Bosnia and the Turks

Bosnia and Croatia Under Dabiša

The agreement had 3 major provisions:

Dabiša and Peaceful Foreign Relations

Dabiša Requiem

Queen Jelena Gruba and Her Era: Bosnia Refuses To Die

Sigismund and Bosnian Affairs

The Crusade of Nicopolis

Queen Jelena’s Last Years

Chapter 17BALKAN KINGMAKER: THE AGE OF HRVOJE VUKČIĆ

Hrvoje’s Origins

Hrvoje’s Rise To Dominance and The Revolt Against The Catholic Church

King Stephen Ostoja

Bosnian War with Ragusa

Hrvoje at the Zenith; the Struggle to Maintain Power and Independence after the Selection of Tvrtko II as King of Bosnia, the Serbs and Dalmatian Areas.

Foreign Relations: Ragusa

New Wars With Sigismund: The Invasion of 1405

Second Offensive: The Invasion Of 1406

1407: The Third Invasion of Bosnia

A New Crusade: The Invasion of Bosnia In 1408

The Second Reign of Ostoja

The Fifth Invasion of Bosnia In Six Years

Sultan Musa

Hrvoje’s Final Crisis and The Sixth Invasion Of Bosnia

The Sixth Invasion of Bosnia

Hrvoje: An Epilogue

Chapter 18TVRTKO II TVRTKOVIĆ: THE REBUILDING OF THE BOSNIAN STATE

Consolidation of Power

The Turkish Problem

The Gathering Storm

Tvrtko’s New Challengers

Religious Problems

Tvrtko II In Exile

The Final Phase of the Reign of Tvrtko II: Grasping Victory Out Of Defeat

Tvrtko the Just

Death of Sigismund

Turkey on the March

The New Coalition Against the Ottomans

Origin of Herzegovina as a Regional Name

Tvrtko II Fights The Turks And Their Allies

The New Crusade

The Historical Role of Tvrtko Ii

Chapter 19KING STEPHEN TOMAŠ OSTOJIĆ

The Rise of King Stephen Tomaš and the Resurgence of Bosnia

The Marriage of a King

Religious Controversies

Serbian Conflicts

The War of the Florentine Woman

War of the Croatian Woman

The New Turkish Threat

The Bosnian Crusade

Reunion of Bosnians and Serbs

Persecution of the Bogomils

New Turkish Assaults on Herzegovina

King Tomaš and the Turks

Pius II and Bosnia and Herzegovina

The End of the Reign of King Stephen Tomaš

King Stephen Tomaš: Evaluation

Chapter 20THE FALL OF BOSNIA: PRELUDE TO CONQUEST

Beginning of the End

The Gathering of Armies

The Ottoman Invasion of Bosnia

The Survivors: A Tale of Two Queens

Queen Marija

The Turkish Invasion’s Effects on Bosnia And Herzegovina

European Reaction to the Conquest

Herzegovina Rises Against the Ottomans

Chapter 21BOSNIAN BATTLEGROUND

The Resistance of Herzegovina

European Counteraction to the 1463 Turkish Invasion of Bosnia And Herzegovina

Pope Pius II

Venice

King Matthias Corvinus

Herzegovina

The Ottoman Reaction

A Tale of the Two Kings

Hungary’s Bosnian King

Herzegovina – The Struggle for Survival Continues

The Herceg’s Historical Role: An Epilogue

Chapter 22THE FINAL FALL OF BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA TO THE TURKS

Herzegovina Under The Heirs Of Stephen Vukčić Kosača

Vladislav

Vlatko

The Anti-Ottoman Movement of 1476

The Siege of Herceg Novi

Bosnia between the Ottomans and Hungary

The Corvinus Dynasty and Bosnia

A New King for Bosnia

The Final Fall of Bosnia to Turkey

THE FINAL FALL

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Endnotes

INTRODUCTION: BOSNIAN

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES

AS BITTER AND BLOODY WARFARE engulfed the regions of the former Yugoslavia during the early 1990’s, Bosnia and Herzegovina became its main battleground and a major focus of world attention. However, the greatly increased concern with this little known South Slavic province was puzzling to much of the European and American public. Many people could not understand the issues that motivated these ferocious conflicts, or why Bosnia merited such a high degree of international interest. In a world replete with atrocities, why did Bosnian lives matter so much?

This state of mind was quite understandable. It was not possible to comprehend the Bosnian war of the nineties without a deeper knowledge of the long history of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The roots of the present are always in the past. However, reliable information on this subject was in scant supply in the West. The world was quite unfamiliar with Bosnian history.

In 1999, the Kosovo war between NATO and what was left of Yugoslavia took place. That struggle has long ended, but the underlying issues have not really been resolved. They continue to fester, just like they do in Bosnia and Herzegovina despite the Dayton Peace Agreement that brought about an ostensible cessation of hostilities. It is not improbable under these conditions, that further explosions could take place. Though it may be taken as a positive development, the revolution that overthrew Serbian leader Milošević in October of 2000 was probably only the first of many political aftershocks likely to result from the Bosnian and Kosovo conflicts. The fighting that followed some years later in Macedonia was clearly another. Yet there was no serious attention placed in the West on centuries-old developments causative of either the previous violent Yugoslav conflicts or the more recent war that engaged America and NATO for almost three months, and which resulted in thousands of American and European soldiers being sent into harm’s way in Kosovo. They joined allied troops similarly endangered in other parts of the former Yugoslavia. Neither did any analyst develop the significance of the intimate connection between Kosovo and Bosnia that dates back to the very origin of the former becoming a burning rallying point for Serbs and many other Slavs. Yet, only through a sound understanding of the historical roots of contemporary major conflicts can we hope to obtain a realistic basis for their lasting resolution.

Bosnia and Herzegovina has for many centuries functioned as an epicenter for developments in South Slavic lands – and even in the wider Balkan region. It has long been a microcosm of that area and a geopolitical fulcrum for the interplay of many conflicting movements. Therefore, it is not possible to comprehend the historical evolution of major political, religious, and economic forces in the Balkans without a good knowledge of Bosnian history. Conversely, we cannot fully understand Bosnian history in isolation from its regional context. Consequently, any Bosnian history worth its name must also be, to a substantial degree, a regional history – especially in relation to Croats and Serbs.

While much has been published in America about the recent wars in Bosnia and Kosovo, relatively little has been written in this country about formative Bosnian history. My objective in the following pages is to fill this significant gap and help readers understand the conflictual relations in Bosnia by analyzing the inadequately recognized great historical significance of that nation in regional and European affairs. Since Bosnia and Herzegovina has long been a multiethnic society, its history may also help us understand social evolution in other multiethnic societies. The Bosnian story will be meaningful to people in other countries since, with increased globalization, the entire world is fast becoming one huge, complex, multiethnic society. It should be of particular interest to America, itself an amalgam of many diverse cultures. By listing here the major themes of this study, we will obtain an orientational preview regarding the historical perspectives to be developed in the main body of this work.

First, this book will emphasize the amazing resilience of Bosnia throughout its evolution from ancient historical roots. Its territory has fluctuated, but the basic geographical extent of what is defined as Bosnia and Herzegovina has been remarkably stable for a long time.

Though the area had often been completely or partly conquered by other nations, the people of the region have repeatedly struggled to regain their independence. These efforts were crowned with success on a number of occasions as Bosnia and Herzegovina rose time and again like a phoenix from its own ashes. While numerous invading peoples and civilizations made their way through what are recognizably Bosnian areas over the last two thousand years, they were not able to stop the development of a Bosnian identity and the creation of a unique Bosnian cultural amalgam. Indeed, they have all contributed to it, albeit sometimes at the cost of much blood and destruction.

The human tides that have passed through Bosnia and Herzegovina also had a profound genetic impact, generating a great variety of physical types, including many Nordic-looking Muslims and Arabic-looking Christians. More important were the political, cultural, religious and, to a lesser degree, economic influences that the different conquerors of Bosnia had on the evolution of a specific historical Bosnian ethnicity and way of life. Some of these effects were direct and others indirect. In sum, they were extremely significant, adding accretions from many cultures to create the Bosnian national character.

The longest lasting involvement of Bosnia and Herzegovina with other peoples involved Croats and Serbs. The history of Bosnia has been intimately intertwined with these two nationalities for well over one thousand years. Though the Turkish impact was huge in its resultant historical effects, not even relations with Turkey approach the historical significance of Serbo-Croatian ties with Bosnia. Turkey was directly responsible for the creation of the Bosnian Muslim population and the consequent cultural changes in the area. This led to the present three fold division of Bosnia. However, the Bosnian-Serbo-Croatian relational dynamics are much older and not only significant historically, but represent a living web and interplay of vital contemporary forces.

The ethnic conflicts in Bosnia were and remain to a large extent fueled by historical myth-

making. Here we find a struggle of competing narratives on the part of all three major national players. Though, as is often the case in historical mythmaking, there is some truth at the core of every such narrative, the truth has been obscured and distorted by both omissions of material facts and false assertions. Only the resulting development of vehemently competing mythologies can explain the bitterly contested nature of the late twentieth century war in Bosnia and Herzegovina. An understanding of these tendencies will also assist us in a prognosis of possible future problems and may help in finding their solutions.

In my study I will present the main mythic strands and examine the often very different underlying reality by uncovering what is, to a large extent, the forgotten history of the region. This regrettable lack of remembrance of many things past is substantially traceable to politically manipulated selective historical memories.

While this analysis will be more detailed later, certain major historical claims not fully based on the historical record should be listed now so that they can help provide a conceptual framework. Each and every one of them has had a profound impact on Bosnian history. Their effects continue to proliferate because such historical misconceptions still possess an intensely vital force in the region. Widely accepted historical myths affecting Bosnia include the following:

First, that Bosnia is a part of Greater Serbia and has been a Serbian area from its beginnings. This, of course, is the Serbian nationalist historical view, which, for the most part, denies Bosnia and Bosnians any unique historical identity. Serbian writers like Paul Radosavljević and Nikola Radojčić are adamant in this regard. Serbian ultranationalists also often deny that Bosnian Muslims are anything other than Turkish occupiers of Serbian territory. Though it is certain that Bosnian Muslims are generally descended from Slavic converts to Islam, many Bosnian Serb radicals still refuse to live alongside these so-called Turks.

Second, that Bosnia is and always has been a Croatian area. Croatian historical writing, as exemplified by Dominik Mandić and Martin Krmpotić, is almost unanimous in claiming all (or almost all) of Bosnia as part of Croatia. According to this theory, not only were the original Slavic settlers in Bosnia Croats, but also so are most of the present inhabitants of the territory. Bosnia is said to have originated as the most eastern province of the Croatian kingdom. Dr. Ante Starčević, a nineteenth century Croatian nationalist writer now in great vogue in Croatia, has even written that the Bosnian Muslim elite under the Turks were …the oldest and purest Croatian nobles… in all of Europe. A recent book quoting and espousing this view asserts that the Bosnian Muslims generally are of Croatian origin. This is in sharp contradiction with the Serbian ultra-nationalists’ claim that Bosnian Muslims are of Turkish origin. However, both Serbian and Croatian nationalists agree in denying the existence of a separate Bosnian history and identity. They ignore the fact that, while there undoubtedly were some Serbs and Croats present in Bosnia and Herzegovina for many centuries, the predominant population was of a different related group – i.e., Bosnians.

Third are the main Bosnian Muslim myths concerning the Turkish occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina that lasted some four centuries. The present writer has heard a leading Bosnian Muslim ideologue speak of the Turkish era as a semi-idyllic period for all religious and ethnic groups. Some other Bosnian Muslim historians have tended to emphasize the positive aspects of life under the Ottomans, while downplaying or ignoring some of the very real negative effects of protracted Turkish rule. Even Safvet Beg Bašagić-Redžepašić, perhaps the first noted Bosnian Muslim historian after the Turkish period, in 1900 actually denied that Bosnia and Herzegovina ever lost its independence during the Turkish conquest of the late fifteenth century. He claimed that it continued as a state within a state, and was ruled in only a titular sense in the name of the sultans. According to him, Bosnian independence was not finally crushed until the middle of the nineteenth century. The evidence against this being reality is overwhelming. In the same vein, more recently, Bosnian Muslims Fadil Ekmečić and Adil Zulfikarpašić, in their short 1994 history of Bosnia, emphasized the benefits of Turkish rule and the purported benign Ottoman treatment of Christians.

It is the Turkish connection that also gave rise to the fourth major myth, which is specifically Serbian and characterizes Serbs as eternal historical victims, always fighting courageously alone against overwhelmingly oppressive forces seeking to destroy them. This self-view is substantially based on the pivotal 1389 Battle of Kosovo, during which Christian forces fought Ottoman Turkish armies. According to the traditional mythic account, the unaided Serbs at Kosovo faced a massive Turkish army and were gloriously defeated. This is not what actually happened, as the Serbs were indeed not alone at the battle and an actual Turkish victory in that conflict is even now far from certain. However, the longstanding myth continues with new accretions to this day and still motivates many Serbian nationalists. Obviously the result of such a siege mentality can easily lead to reactive or even anticipatory violence. One who believes everybody is against him can justify attacking a perceived potential enemy first, thus immobilizing him before he has a chance to strike.

The fifth myth is one that is current both in the Yugoslavian ambit and other areas of the world whose focus is the Balkans. This is an ardent certainty that the history of the peoples of the former Yugoslavia has generally been one of centuries-long bloody warfare among the salient ethnic groups. According to this belief, since they usually fought each other before, it is natural for them to fight again. In keeping with this view, many among the nationalities of the former Yugoslavia also believe that other Yugoslav nationalities have often been warlike aggressors against their people. Such conceptions may be easily transformed into self-fulfilling prophecies.

However, this is not in accord with the historical record. Except upon occasions when forced to fight each other by foreign conquerors, significant warfare between Bosnians, Serbs and Croats has been extremely rare until the twentieth century. During the centuries of Bosnia’s and Serbia’s independence, though they had several conflicts, there was only one major war between them. There is no record of internecine South Slavic warfare even approaching the duration and intensity of the Hundred Years War between England and France. On the contrary, there was a monumental, though now largely forgotten, movement during the Middle Ages to unite the main South Slavic national groups to live together in friendship.

Though, as will be seen more fully later, the truth is very different in all five cases, these myths have been manipulated to fuel intense conflicts mainly because of the frequent identification of national identity with religion. When inflamed by outside forces, religious struggles have too frequently taken place in Bosnia. In the Middle Ages, this involved the now almost forgotten Bogomil rivalry with the Catholic Church and, to a lesser extent, Eastern Orthodox practitioners. These remote conflicts were precursors of late twentieth century troubles. Yet, perhaps paradoxically, there was also an opposite effect that often came to the fore in reaction to religiously fomented bloodshed: There was a notable tendency in Bosnia not to take religion too seriously so as to diminish the chances of interfaith disputes becoming causes of conflict. Thus, before the latest nationalistic fighting, Bosnian Muslims were overwhelmingly nonreligious – or even antireligious. The degree of religious toleration in ancient and modern Bosnia was very remarkable. Indeed, in the Middle Ages, Bosnia was often a haven for religious dissidents. Even after the Turkish conquest, Christians, Muslims and Jews lived peacefully together most of the time. Toleration of religious differences in Bosnia before 1991 was strong and tended to promote a lax attitude towards matters of faith among Muslims and Christians alike. It took a skillful and rather recent manipulation of historical myths to identify religion with nationality among enough people in order to fan the flames of war. Even so, many Muslims, Serbs and Croats in the region remained committed to the trans-religious Bosnian tradition.

The main reason why differences in religion have played such a major role in Bosnia and Herzegovina can be ascribed to its position in the nerve center of the nexus of several major cultures and faiths. At first, Bosnia lay by the boundary separating eastern (Byzantine) and westerns parts of the Roman Empire. Since religious identification in the region was connected with political power, this border eventually developed into a dividing line between Orthodoxy and Catholicism.

During the Middle Ages, perhaps in reaction to competing religious influences, Bosnia developed its own religious identity – a variant of what was called Bogomilism. This was a striking way of asserting its independence as it became a buffer between Eastern and Western Christianity. However, the country’s geopolitical position between competing cultural areas made what happened in Bosnia of intense interest to powerful neighboring countries. They often intervened, thus tending to intensify and make more widely relevant all religious conflicts, each intervening side being eager for the victory of its co-religionists in contiguous Bosnia and Herzegovina.

After the Turkish conquest, the Ottoman Empire basically took over the Byzantine Empire’s sphere of control. Bosnia found itself on the cultural fault line separating an Islamic empire and Christian Europe. Again, religious and political identities were merged into one, with many Bosnians adopting the religion of their conquerors. To a great extent, religious concerns continued to be of paramount importance in political and economic spheres during the years that followed, while religious differences were heightened by new internal and external rivalries.

Bosnia’s location is also rendered uniquely sensitive by its geographic position. It is strategically situated near the center of the Balkans, close to the confluence of great rivers between the western end of the Eurasian landmass and the Mediterranean littoral. Its central location in Eastern Europe underscores the wider significance of the control of Bosnia- Herzegovina; for many years, the conquest of this region had been considered a critically important prerequisite for any power seeking to dominate the Balkans.

Enmeshed in the crosscurrents of the relations between major political and cultural powers, Bosnia and Herzegovina was inevitably much affected by them. It has itself also often had a profound impact on the much wider world beyond it. One may compare this to the law of physics, which provides that for every action there is a reactive opposite effect. Similarly, in what may be a geopolitical law, geographic regions which have been greatly affected by their surrounding international community must at some point in time also have a major impact on other powers in significant relation to them. This effect could be direct or indirect. Bosnia is a uniquely representational instance of this – as my work will illustrate.

The substantial impact of Bosnia on the European world has been repeated on many historical occasions throughout the centuries. A few examples will suffice for the present to demonstrate that the great worldwide concern with what was taking place in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the early 1990’s was not a new development.

During the 13th century, Bosnia became the stronghold of the Bogomil religion, which in its various modalities spread throughout Europe, where it became a major focus of international attention. Bosnian missionaries extended their influence to the Cathars of France and elsewhere. In reaction, Catholic powers repeatedly launched crusading wars against Bosnia. However, Bogomilism was still able to exercise a profound influence on the development of Protestantism, and the concomitant western civilization. In the later Middle Ages, Bosnia was a bulwark against repeated Ottoman Turkish attempts to conquer Europe. When the Turks conquered the Bosnian heartland in 1463, shock waves spread throughout the continent and the Pope then tried to organize a crusade to free the region from the Ottomans.

In the 1870’s, Bosnian insurrections against Turkish rule led to grave concerns over who would hold the reins of power in the area. These worries were ostensibly finally settled at the 1878 Congress of Berlin. The monumental results of that gathering reverberated through international relations for almost half a century. The purported peace agreement involving Bosnia led to a chain of consequence continuing to this day.

In 1914 the assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife in Sarajevo, the present capital of Bosnia, triggered World War I. To mankind’s regret, the aftereffects of that catastrophe led to World War II and changed the face of the world forever.

The history of the region clearly illustrates that Bosnia and Herzegovina has long been at a nerve center of European developments. Given such precedents, it is no exaggeration to opine that what happens there could greatly impact upon much of the continent and what happens in Europe affects the entire world.

One conclusion that will clearly be inescapable in the following narrative is that Bosnia, in its long and often tortuous history, tended to fare best when its leaders carried out policies according to what they perceived was their enlightened national interest, rather than following the dictates of other powers, which inevitably led to ruin. This perhaps common sense proposition is illustrated in many instances of Bosnian history. One of the most significant of such examples is what took place when the Bosnian king gave in to Papal demands to persecute the Bogomils shortly before the Turkish invasion of 1463. This was the price exacted for Western support against the Ottoman Turks. The consequent alienation of the Bogomils removed the strongest support of the Bosnian state. No timely Western assistance arrived and the Bosnian kingdom was doomed to destruction and eventually collapsed under the Turkish onslaught.

Methodology and Sources

This study utilizes a wide variety of scholarly and original sources available in the different languages of the former Yugoslavia. Many of these materials are not to be found in America. Particular emphasis has also been placed on medieval chronicles and early histories. Some of these have only recently been published anywhere. These include, among others, Greek, Latin, Croatian, Bosnian, Serbian, Hungarian and Turkish works. The Turkish historical writings will cast new light on the generally unknown Bosnian connection to Kosovo – an area that was so often in the headlines during the last twenty years.

We may note the 10th century De Administrando Imperio, written by Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, the 12th century Chronicle of the Priest of Dioclea and the classic original history, II Regno Degli Slavi, published by Mauro Orbini in 1601, among the more significant primary sources. Original archival information is also taken into account – especially the archives of Ragusa, now known as the Croatian city of Dubrovnik.

There are other published materials which have been consulted for this volume, but have been generally neglected in modern studies of Bosnia. One of the most significant was written by Sir Arthur Evans, the archeologist who discovered many of the secrets of the Minoan civilization of Crete. He was probably the first person to apply scientific objectivity and modern archeological research methods to Bosnian history and culture. His exhaustive work on Bosnia and Herzegovina was published in the wake of a field trip to the area in the 1870’s.

In the course of writing this study, I have consulted many original primary sources never previously brought together in a history of Bosnia. All were utilized with a ready concern for their reliability and evidentiary value. This included making judgments of the objectivity and possible bias of the authors asserting the facts or opinions at issue.

There is an old saying that a picture is worth a thousand words. It has been my good fortune, with the help of a number of dedicated people, to obtain, specifically for this book, many remarkable pictures illustrative of the Bosnian historical cultural heritage. These include images that have never previously been published in any history dealing with the area. I hope these illustrations will reinforce the sense of the brilliance and originality of what was lost, and help generate a movement towards renewal, should the Bosnian Phoenix and the South Slavic region determine to rise again as high as it did in the past.

Chapter 1

GENESIS

FIRST THERE WAS THE LAND itself, blessed with mighty mountains that reach for the heavens and pierce the clouds. Most of the area of what is now called Bosnia and Herzegovina is covered with rugged and thickly wooded hills surrounding often isolated green valleys. Through all of this territory flow many large rivers and streams. A number of impressive crystal lakes reflecting the mountain tops and the usually azure skies add to the already considerable natural beauty. Its territorial limits extend to the Adriatic, adding a touch of Mediterranean flavor to the largely semialpine terrain.

On achieving independence in 1992, the nation of Bosnia and Herzegovina covered 19,736 square miles. This is about twice the size of New Hampshire. Herzegovina on its own consisted of approximately 18% of the total area, including a 12-mile stretch of Adriatic coastline near and around the port of Neum. The Drina River forms the main part of the boundary with Serbia on the east. The Sava River marks much of the border with Croatia on the north and west. For hundreds of years—and under different foreign rulers – the territorial extent of Bosnia and Herzegovina remained more or less stable.

For most of the year the climate is moderate. Summers are not very hot for long, while extreme cold is of relatively short duration during the winter. Due to generally congenial climactic conditions, adequate rainfall, well-watered terrain, and rich soil, the land is very fertile, both in the valleys and on the lower hillsides. Corn, wheat, potatoes, plums, and tobacco are the main crops. Bosnia and Herzegovina is also well suited for livestock raising, with sheep, cattle, chickens, and pigs being the staples of its animal husbandry.

The territory includes massive mineral resources. Large silver deposits were known in ancient times. Substantial amounts of copper, iron ore, lead, zinc, and lignite are also located in Bosnia. Huge salt deposits, especially in the Tuzla district, have been a source of wealth for thousands of years. There have also been discoveries of naphtha and natural gas.

With so many resources and qualities amenable to human existence, it is no wonder that the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina has attracted settlements of diverse and acquisitive populations from prehistoric days. It has repeatedly drawn in a wide variety of national groups in large numbers – often to the sorrow of those who were already settled there. Once they arrived, the physical features of the territory and its resources exerted a strong influence on the social and economic evolution of the settlers who shaped the land and created its history. Thus, the mountainous terrain, which had long made communication and travel difficult, led to isolated development and tended to promote the creation of a typically independent minded clannish population with many autonomous centers, whose inhabitants were often reluctant to unite, even if doing so were to be in their common interest. On the other hand, the natural wealth of the land attracted many diverse invaders, generating a natural stimulant for bellicosity and requiring military preparedness among the mixed populations. However, when unity could be achieved it had striking results. Exploitation of the land would then create great wealth, albeit with major ecological side effects, such as substantial deforestation. That was the settlement pattern in most respects, regardless of the ethnic makeup of the dominant populace.

One of the first major population groups to find a home in Bosnia was the Neolithic Butmir culture centering around the Sarajevo area. It attained its apex from 3500 to 3000 B.C. and left numerous remains of its existence, including sophisticated pottery as well as various other handicrafts.

In the area of the town of Visoko, there is a possible remnant of another apparent ancient culture in what seems to be a large pyramid with underground chambers and pathways. Such prehistoric cultures were followed in turn by a kaleidoscopic panorama of peoples and nations, a profusion rarely found in any country’s past. Many of these have had a profound influence on the history of Bosnia and Herzegovina. They have also, in large part, helped to determine the uniquely Bosnian national character.

Illyrians

The Illyrians were the first historical cornerstone in the building up and establishing of Bosnia and Herzegovina and its people. It is therefore in Illyrian history that the original substratum of Bosnian history is revealed. Around 1200 B.C. this Indo-European people spread through much of the Balkans, especially the Yugoslavian and Albanian regions. However, there were also proto-Illyrian tribes resident in Italy and other areas. Thus, Homer’s Iliad lists the Dardani, one of the Illyrian tribes that eventually settled in large numbers in Bosnia, as a participant in the Trojan War on the side of the Troy. In fact, the legendary city of Troy, also known as Ilium was itself inhabited by a proto-Illyrian people.

By the fifth century before Christ, the Illyrians had developed several notable kingdoms with distinctive traits that marked their civilization. At that time, a major Illyrian state was founded under King Sirrhas who succeeded in uniting a number of tribes. It held sway over and exercised great power in much of Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, and Epirus.

In the fourth center B.C. the Balkans were invaded by massive incursions of Celts. They conquered the Bosnia and Herzegovina area, as well as some other nearby regions, using their fierce fighting capabilities, sometimes combined with considerable Celtic cunning and wit. Thus on one occasion, facing an Illyrian army, the Celts set up a large banquet of savory food and left it for their opponents in an apparently deserted camp. The Illyrians gobbled up the food and were quickly hit with severe diarrhea, learning too late that the Celts had added purgative herbs to the food. When they saw the desired effect, the Celtic host attacked their disabled enemies and won an easy victory. Many of the Celtic conquerors were eventually merged with the much more numerous Illyrian population, but they did give their own cast to some aspects of Illyrian culture. Their influence may be seen in several place names, such as the River Tara in central Bosnia.

Tara is also the name of the Irish royal city.

Many names of Celtic origin such as Bojo, are still to be found in Herzegovina. The Celtic connection to Bosnia is indisputable.

Though the Illyrians had managed to absorb the Celtic victors and create a cultural amalgam, they could not pull off such a feat against the growing power of Rome. The greatest Illyrian state under its last king Genthios (whose name became a byword for gentility) was conquered by Rome in 169 B.C. The Roman Republic invaded Illyria with the putative justification of suppressing piracy that was allegedly being committed by certain Illyrian coastal and island inhabitants. However, it was clear the Roman conquerors were really motivated by a desire to acquire the rich natural resources of the area. Other Illyrians resisted the growing Roman power long after Genthios’ fall and there were more battles to come.

Illyrian civilization was very well developed. Its people exercised a wide variety of economic activity, including gold and silver mining and their knowledge of medicine was quite sophisticated. Numerous archeological remains testify to the artistic and technical skills of the Illyrians. Many of their extant monuments give expression to a vibrantly strong and creative culture, which had an impact on the people of the region to this day.

The Illyrians had a variety of religious beliefs and practices. The frequently found Illyrian decorative motifs of concentric circles are connected with the worship of the sun, known in Rome as Sol Invictus. Signs of serpent worship are also found in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as in other places. Possibly the most important of their other gods are the guardians of the springs, Vidasus and his companion Thana or Dana. In practice the Illyrian religion possessed a certain simplicity, though its practitioners had intense religious feelings like many of the other peoples in the ancient world. There is no evidence of a priestly class, and few temples were built. The area of Bosnia and Herzegovina was one of the major early centers of Illyrian culture.

Much of this has been learned from the work of Ćiro Truhelka, the first director of the Sarajevo Zemaljski Muzej, founded in 1888. He inspired the excavation of one of the main Illyrian settlements in Donja Dolina near Bosanska Gradiška. His work led to the discovery of a large Illyrian necropolis with burial mounds at Glasinačko Polje, a site which became synonymous with prehistoric Illyrian culture.

The importance of the Illyrian tribes of Bosnia and Herzegovina is confirmed by ancient Roman writers such as Strabo. Some two thousand years ago he wrote about the Autariatae, whose centers were in eastern Bosnia east to the Morava and Lim Rivers. Now the Autariatae were once the largest and best tribe of the Illyrians. The Autariatae later came upon hard times, and were eclipsed by other Illyrian tribes, especially the Daesitiates, who lived in central Bosnia. This thickly populated Illyrian region also included smaller tribes such as the Deretini, Dindari, Devri, and Maezaei.

The power of the Daesitiates was destined to shake the foundations of the Roman Empire itself. In 6 A.D., during the reign of Augustus, the first and probably greatest Roman emperor, the Daesitiates of Central Bosnia under their leader Bato rose in revolt against Roman rule. The rebellion spread like wildfire through the Illyrian areas as other tribes joined Bato’s forces. Roman historian Suetonius called the ensuing conflict the most bitterly fought of all foreign wars since Rome had defeated Carthage.

Cassius Dio, later Roman governor over Illyrian Dalmatia and Pannonia, provided a vivid account of that war. The Illyrians defeated a number of Roman armies, with much of the bitterest fighting raging in the mountains of the Bosnia and Herzegovina region. Italy faced massive food shortages as a consequence of the war, while at the same time an Illyrian invasion of the Roman homeland was greatly feared. Finally, Tiberius, Augustus ’adopted son and destined to be the next emperor, was sent to lead the Roman armies in Illyria. He won a few victories, but was then trapped by Bato’s troops. The Romans could have all been killed, but Bato allowed the surrounded Roman army quarter to withdraw with Tiberius rather than massacring them all. By giving this incredible mercy he may have allowed the Roman Empire to survive.

Suetonius states that Tiberius eventually massed an army of fifteen legions and auxiliaries in Illyria. According to the standards of the time, this was equivalent to the 1944 D-Day invasion force. After three years of arduous and bloody fighting with Bato’s and other forces, there came an end to the war.

Bato’s fighters had lost much ground, but were not yet completely defeated. He arranged to enter Tiberius’ camp under the cover of night. Asking nothing for himself, he pleaded for his people, trying to negotiate their surrender on the best available terms. Tiberius asked him why he had rebelled against Roman rule. In a compelling answer recorded by Cassius Dio, Bato blamed Rome for provoking the rebellion. He said, We are your flocks, yet you do not send dogs or shepherds to guard us, but wolves. The bravery and gallantry of the Illyrians deeply impressed the Roman general. In gratitude for the time Bato spared him and his command, Tiberius did likewise and allowed him to spend the rest of his life in comfort as an exile from his Bosnian homeland in Ravenna, Italy. Illyrians eventually became the staunchest supporters of the Roman Empire, providing it with many emperors, among whom was Diocletian, who retired to the city of Split near Bosnia. Their contribution was critical to the preservation of the Empire.

Augustus and Tiberius were granted the title Imperator by Rome in honor of their victory. Though this had previously been only an acclaim of honor given to victorious Roman generals, it had never been a permanent title. After the Illyrian victory, the designation of Imperator became fixed and formed the basis of the English word emperor.

Illyrian historical and cultural influences can be traced to several other major locales this people were known to inhabit, especially Albania, Dalmatia and parts of Montenegro-Serbia. Though much of Serbian and Croatian historical writing ascribes the early development of Bosnia almost exclusively to their respective ethnic groups, it is not possible to truly understand the historical evolution of Bosnia without appreciating the great significance of its Illyrian background.

John Wilkes, in his study, The Illyrians, shows that, though much diminished in population by wars, Illyrian tribes continued to exist in the Bosnia and Herzegovina region well after the Roman conquest. Many of their municipalities and settlements were granted local autonomy by the Roman conquerors. Their people passed to posterity many Illyrian religious, political, and cultural traits, while also adapting amazingly well to Roman and later other rulers. The name of Illyria was kept alive by the memory of past Illyrian glories, many of which were enhanced during the Roman period.

Going forward, the twelfth century Chronicle of the Priest of Dioclea calls the ruler of Bosnia one of the principal leaders of Illyria. Dioclea itself was a medieval Slavic-Illyrian state, named after an Illyrian tribe. Dioclea included much of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the 10th and 11th centuries. Diocletian’s name was derived from this area where he was born.

The medieval ruling families of Bosnia were considered Illyrian royalty. The Roman grave of the sister of the great 13th century Bosnian Ban Ninoslav, states: Hic iacet Diana Illyrica, giving her name as Diana the Illyrian. Later Bosnian kings, such as the mid-fifteenth-century monarch Stephen Thomaš, had King of Illyria as one of their official titles.

Historical survival of Illyrianism continued into the nineteenth century. We may in the present context mention the 1875 trip to Bosnia and Herzegovina by the famed British archeologist Arthur Evans. In his groundbreaking book on the region, he reproduced the medieval coat of arms of Bosnia, as shown to him by Franciscan monks in their ancient monastery of Fojnica. It had a large star in the middle. A monk informed Evans that this was the Illyrian star, which symbolized that Bosnia was the center of Illyria.

As evidence that Illyrian influences can be observed in Bosnian folk music, Aleksandar Stipčević mentions a study by Rithman that found that some polyphonic forms existing in the region were not employed among other Slavic peoples. A conclusion was drawn that this represented a survival of Illyrian musical culture. Other studies have also traced some of the Kolo dances of Bosnia and Herzegovina and several neighboring regions to their putative Illyrian roots.

Many Illyrian place names continue to be used in the region today. Two mountain tops in Herzegovina are called Bat, reminiscent of Bato’s exploits in the war against the Romans. In the wider regions in which Bosnian Illyrian culture spread we have the town names of Batovo, Batovići and others, all marking back to the famed first century Illyrian leader.

Čorović wrote that the Neretva, the main Herzegovinian River, bears an Illyrian provenance. The names of some of the main Bosnian Rivers, such as the Drina, Duna, and Una, are of Illyrian origin as well.

The names of several major mountains also derive from Illyria. These include the Dinaric Alps, so called after the Illyrian Dindari tribe of Bosnia.

In the Bosnia and Herzegovina region, Illyrian appellations for individuals have had a long currency and continue to this day. This especially applies to those derived from Bato, though often in a Slavicized form. Thus, in medieval times, a famous illuminated book was commissioned by a Bosnian court nobleman called Batalo. Even today, the prenomen of Bato can be found among Bosnian Muslims, Orthodox and Catholics. Slavicized surnominal forms of Bato, such as Batić or Batović are not uncommon.

Even in this century, some Serbian and Croatian oriented writers have attested to the significance of the Illyrian tradition by trying to connect it with their own ethnicity. Thus, Vladimir Čorović called the Illyrian fighters against Rome Četniks, a name commonly applied to Serb irregular guerrilla forces. Milan Prelog calls them Ustaši, the Croatian equivalent term for insurgent fighters.

The foregoing examples of the survival of elements of Illyrian culture and historical memory are by no means all-inclusive, but are only illustrative. Perhaps paradoxically, much of this continuity is due to the Roman conquest. It not only impressed a strong Roman stamp or character upon the Illyrian population but, though it forcibly eliminated Illyrian independence, Roman rule also partly preserved and added to the appreciation of Illyrian culture and identity. Illyria was Romanized but Rome was also Illyrianized.

Roman Rule

After Bato’s negotiated surrender in 9 A.D, the Roman Empire achieved complete dominance over all Illyrian territories, including the Bosnia and Herzegovina region. However, Illyria did not die as Rome kept the name of Illyria alive. Illyrian cultural elements were a great substratum under Roman rule in the region.

The Romans divided the Illyrian administrative sector into two major provinces. Dalmatia included most of Bosnia and Herzegovina as well as what is today called Dalmatia, Montenegro and West Serbia. Northern Bosnia and Bosnian Posavina belonged to Pannonia. Roman governors and officials were in charge, but there was some local autonomy and consultative provincial assemblies where Illyrian notables could have their say.

In 212 A.D. Emperor Marcus Aurelius Caracalla granted civil rights to free Roman citizens, not excluding those settled in the border of the empire. This included the Illyrians and about 280

A.D. Illyricum was established as one of the four major provinces of the Roman Empire under a praefectus praetoria. This recognized the growing importance of Roman Illyria. Illyricum comprised all the old Illyrian areas, including Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as parts of Macedonia and Greece. The Illyrian Phoenix was rising from the ashes.

The later division of the Roman Empire in 395 A.D. into respective eastern and western administrative areas by Emperor Theodosius had a profound effect. He decreed that it be apportioned between his sons, with a dividing line that cut through what is now Bosnia and Herzegovina. Its position on the boundary between Eastern and Western Roman Empires led to profound religious, cultural and political divisions that continue today.

By the end of the second century A.D. Illyrians were already providing the lion’s share of manpower for the Roman legions. A substantial number of legionaries came from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Many Illyrians rose from being commanders of armies to becoming some of the greatest Roman Emperors. These included Decius, Claudius II, Aurelianus, Probus, Diocletian, and Constantine the Great. With the firm establishment of their province and with a growing number of Illyrian emperors to boast of, Illyria had substantially risen again and great and memorable prestige has been added to the Illyrian name. In turn, the influx of Illyrians into the Roman Empire invigorated Rome and helped preserve it for hundreds of years even though the original Roman population had by the third century greatly declined in martial ability.

The Illyrians paid a price for this success by becoming absorbed into the Roman civilization. They had to surrender much, though far from all, of their ethnic identity and basically accept Roman culture, law and language as an overlay on their native culture. The Illyrian identification with the Roman state became so strong that, at a time when the ancient Roman stock was weakening, Romanized Illyrians became the greatest Romans of them all. Many were ready to sacrifice much of their heritage in order to become identified with Roman prestige and power. In doing so, they also transformed the Roman Empire itself.

One of the major reasons for this ardent loyalty to Rome was that Roman rule brought Roman law whose application led to unprecedented economic development and prosperity under the Pax Romana or Roman peace. Rome started an extensive program of exploiting the natural resources of the Bosnia and Herzegovina region, which was accomplished with a much greater intensity than the Illyrians themselves had ever summoned. The most up-to-date available methods and technologies were utilized in this process.

Bosnian gold became a major source of wealth, and as much as 50 lbs. per day could be extracted. A special official based in Salona administered the Bosnian gold mines. The natural salt deposits of the Tuzla region were extensively exploited and became a great contributor to regional prosperity. Silver, lead and iron were mined on a large scale.

Industry also developed. Bosnia produced iron and bronze articles for home use and commerce. There was much manufacture of silver jewelry. Other crafts flourished as well, and much attention was paid to agriculture and related arts.

The first urbanization of Bosnia and Herzegovina started with the founding of a series of cities on the Roman model. They became centers for the transmission of Roman language, art, and culture. These cities were also hubs of commerce and other economic activity. Many modern Bosnian cities originated as Roman municipalities. Since there is no solid evidence of large-scale Roman migration to the Bosnia and Herzegovina provinces, the population must have predominantly comprised of Romanized Illyrians. To name just a few: the large modern city in Bosnia now called Zenica was established as Bistue Nova by the Romans. Banja Luka, the Bosnian Serb rebel capital of the 1990s, originated as the baths of Luke. Županjac was Delminium. The great silver mining town of Srebrenica, the site of the bloody 1995 massacre, was Roman Argentium, which essentially means Silvertown. Near Jajce was Roman Pelva, and Brod na Savi, was Marsonia. Olovo was the Rome’s Plumbum, the lead mining center. Mostar, the capital city of Herzegovina started as a Roman army camp some two thousand years ago. Bosanska Gradiška was called Servitium.

Bosnia and Herzegovina is today still replete with the remains of Roman buildings and other structures built up in and around the many new cities established during the Roman era. The numerous constructions and artifacts left over from Roman rule are a testament to the flourishing and vigorous Roman-Illyrian culture established long ages ago in the region.

Starting in the reign of Augustus, a great system of roads was laid down throughout old Illyria for reasons of defense, and to better exploit its natural resources and expedite local and empire- wide commerce. A section of the famous Via Egnatia connecting Italy with Greece ran through Bosnia from the capital of Salonae to Banja Luka, and then to Bosanska Gradiška, with a connecting link to Siscia the capital of Panonia. Another highway led from Salonae directly to Bistue Nova, now Zenica. The town of Narona was connected by a road to the mining town of Domavoja. Bosnia and Herzegovina was also plugged into the communication and transportation network of the Roman Empire by a system of river and sea transportation.

By the first half millennium of the Christian era, the Roman period brought the region of Bosnia and Herzegovina great technological, social, and political advances. During that epoch, the area reached a high level of development by then contemporary standards and unprecedented prosperity was achieved. Many of the newly developed economic activities were carried on for most of the next 1500 years, taking into account intervening vicissitudes. Bosnia and Herzegovina were drawn together and connected with the outside world and education and acculturation created a mass of Latinized Illyrians. They spoke a variant of Latin but many still held on to some aspects of Illyrian culture and a consciousness of an underlying Illyrian identity, pride in which was enhanced under Roman rule as the Illyrian phoenix revived again after the defeat of Bato. It persisted through the ages despite war after war and one human disaster after another, surviving to some extent in the Vlachs, as they came to be known. They are found even today in many villages of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as in adjoining states.

Huns

In the fourth and fifth centuries A.D., the Roman Empire was attacked by great numbers of what were considered to be barbarians. They were a major factor in eroding the entire structure of the empire. Thus, in 441 A.D. the Huns of Atilla swept south and west over the