Faith Building Evidence: Daily Historical Evidence for the Bible and Jesus

By Douglas E. Schofield

“It only takes a minute to enjoy meditations that make you think. Doug Schofield provides a practical resource to learn Christian truths daily.”
—Gary R. Habermas, Distinguished Research Professor
of Apologetics, Liberty University

“If you want bite-size, daily historical evidence that presents the case for the reliability of Scripture and Jesus’ claims of divinity, then I recommend Schofield’s ‘Faith Building Evidence.’”
—Josh D. McDowell, Author

• Language: English
• Publisher: WestBow Press
• Release date: Nov 5, 2020
• ISBN: 9781664206618

Douglas E. Schofield

Douglas Schofield is a retired history teacher and school administrator. A passion for curriculum development led to an MEd. in the field, numerous provincial Merit Awards and the 1990 National Hilroy Award (Canada). A leader in his local and regional church, Doug served as President of the Canadian Baptists of Atlantic Canada and Chair of the Board of Trustees of Acadia Divinity College. In 2015 he published ‘Examining Jesus’, a series of lessons for high school and university students on the historical evidence for Jesus. ‘Faith Building Evidence’ is written to demonstrate that faith in Jesus as the Son of God is a rational life choice, based on current historical and archeological evidence. It provides evidence for doubters and tools to equip Christians to “Always be prepared to give an answer ... for the hope that you have.” (1 Peter 3:15)

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Copyright © 2020 Douglas E. Schofield.

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and in some cases, names of people and places have been altered to protect their privacy.

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ISBN: 978-1-6642-0660-1 (sc)

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WestBow Press rev. date: 10/30/2020

DEDICATION

This book is dedicated to all those who were told to ‘Just accept it by faith’

and

To those who were made to feel guilty if they expressed doubts.

Remember that Jesus came to the disciples a second time to provide Thomas the evidence he needed to believe. Put your finger here; see my hands. Reach out your hand and put it into my side. Stop doubting and believe. (John 20:27) Nor did Jesus condemn the father whose son was demon-possessed I do believe; help me overcome my unbelief! (Mark 9:24) God just wants your honesty: Search me, O God, and know my heart! Try me and know my thoughts! (Psalm 139:23 ESV) He walked with the two from Emmaus who mourned the loss of faith and hope, and beginning with Moses and all the Prophets, he explained to them what was said in all the Scriptures concerning himself. (Luke 24:27)

Doubt is a normal response by a thinking person, but what you do with your doubt matters! Let it drive you to seek out evidence for your questions and Jesus promises answers: Ask and it will be given to you; seek and you will find; knock and the door will be opened to you. For everyone who asks receives; the one who seeks finds; and to the one who knocks, the door will be opened. (Matthew 7:7,8)

Cover Picture:

Heel of Jehohanan (Yehohanan) discovered in 1968 in East Jerusalem.

This first century heel bone with a Roman spike wedged in it

demonstrated that those crucified were buried like others in ancient

Israel, at least in peacetime. It refutes the claim of some that Jesus’

body would have been thrown in the ditch to rot or be eaten by animals.

Printed with permission from www.BibleLandsMuseum.org.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

No project of this size is the exclusive work of one person. My research has been all with secondary sources. I am beholden to those archeologists, historians, biblical scholars and theologians who worked with the original material and written remains. Their scholarship allows the rest of us a fuller understanding of the critical issues surrounding the biblical narrative and a greater degree of confidence in the accuracy and authority of the Old and New Testaments.

I am also indebted to Rev. Judith Tod who did the proofreading of the initial draft of this work. Her careful and patient scrutiny of each page has made this a more readable and useful book. Rev. Dr. Harry Gardner, Past President of Acadia Divinity College, reviewed the August entries on the teachings of Jesus, to ensure theological orthodoxy. My pastor, Rev. Daniel Cormier, has been a constant source of encouragement and suggested the title and our third son, James, has patiently acted as my technological adviser, or more accurately, substitute.

The staff at Westbow Publishing has also provided valuable insights and guidance through the publishing process, from the submission of the draft, through multiple questions to the completion of printing. Special thanks to Jill, Georgette and Brady. Most importantly I want to thank my wife, Kathleen, who has been a constant support throughout this project and indeed, for the last 49 years. Little would have been accomplished without her love and support. You are the wind beneath my wings!

You see, at just the right time, when we were still powerless, Christ died for the ungodly. Very rarely will anyone die for a righteous person, though for a good person someone might possibly dare to die. But God demonstrates his own love for us in this: While we were still sinners, Christ died for us. (Romans 5:6 – 8) Thank you Jesus!

ENDORSEMENTS

Day by day, the reader will reflect on historical evidence that not only suggests the veracity of the biblical record but provides confidence in its trustworthiness. Schofield has mined the research very well and leaves us with an appetite to dig deeper. Harry Gardner, Past President, Acadia Divinity College

It only takes a minute to enjoy meditations that make you think. Doug Schofield provides a practical resource to learn Christian truths daily. Gary R. Habermas, Distinguished Research Professor of Apologetics, Liberty University

If you want bite-size, daily historical evidence that presents the case for the reliability of Scripture and Jesus’ claims of divinity, then I recommend Schofield’s ‘Faith Building Evidence.’ Josh D. McDowell, Author

The story of Israel, the story of Jesus, and the story of the early church are situated in history, not fantasy. A full understanding of the Christian faith and the message of the scriptures requires placing it in its historic, social, and geographic locations. Schofield’s book introduces readers to these important background items in a novel approach, guiding the readers through a year of learning. Readers will come away with a deeper appreciation of their Bibles and their faith! H. Daniel Zacharias, Associate Professor New Testament Studies, Acadia Divinity College

FORMATTING AND CREDITS

Since the entire subject matter of Faith Building Evidence deals with one aspect of the Bible or another, there are numerous scriptural references. Unless otherwise stated, biblical references are taken from the New International Version (NIV) of the Bible. In addition, the manner of referring to eras in history has changed in recent decades. To reflect that change, which the younger generation and academics recognize, I have used BCE and CE in all text other than quotations. Because my research is all secondary, I have been careful to quote critical information and document my sources, so the reader can verify that the information provided, accurately reflects the original research. Endnotes are provided at the end of each month and a list of references at the end of the book.

The nature of ‘Faith Building Evidence’ required access and accurate documentation of multiple sources in order to ensure a trustworthy overview of current research on the topics discussed. Over 250 sources and nearly 900 endnotes are included in this work. This would not have been possible without the easy access that the internet provides. In situations where a source was used multiple times, exceeding the free use policy of copyright law, permission was sought from the author(s) and / or the publisher. I wish to give credit and thanks to the following:

1. The Biblical Archeological Review for access to several articles critical in the January to March entries.

2. Harvest House Publishers for access to Holden, & Geisler, ‘The Popular Handbook of Archeology & the Bible.’

3. Material taken from ‘New Evidence That Demands A Verdict’ by Josh McDowell. Copyright © 1999 by Josh McDowell. Used by permission of Thomas Nelson. www.thomasnelson.com

4. Dr. Craig Evans and Michele Blum, Publishing Rights Director for Westminster John Knox Press for access to ‘The Final Days’.

5. Mr. David Castor for his picture of the Kurkh Monolith.

6. Bible History Online Maps for access to their pictures of the Black Obelisk and the Alexamanos Graffito.

7. www.BibleLandsMuseum.org. for their picture of Heel of Jehohanan (Yehohanan)

8. Mrs. Sheila Levy for her picture of the Garden Tomb.

INTRODUCTION

I studied and practised law for nearly ten years. In every legal case, evidence is vital. Evidence matters to me. I could not be a Christian if I did not believe that our faith is based on compelling evidence. There is good evidence for the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Nicky Gumbel, Founder of Alpha ¹

Christians claim that the Bible provides an accurate historical account of the life, death and resurrection of Jesus and the beginnings of the early church. Furthermore, the entire Bible is viewed as trustworthy. It is said to point to Jesus as the long-awaited Messiah for the Jewish people and, indeed, the whole world. These are amazingly audacious claims people have argued over for centuries.

In the last few decades, archeology has provided much historical evidence that bears directly on these claims, but much of it has been subject to a variety of interpretations. In the post-911 period, several prominent atheists have argued that religion in general, and especially Christianity, is not only false but dangerous to society. Their works have received wide distribution in the media and in public debate because of their challenge to traditional beliefs and institutions.

What has not received the same level of attention is the response of numerous Christian scholars who have defended Christianity’s claims that Jesus is an historical figure, and the Bible’s description of him is accurate and trustworthy. This book is an effort to show, in an easily digestible format, the breadth of historical support for the integrity of Scripture and the reasonableness of Jesus’ claim to be the Son of God.

Why does evidence matter? As I stated in the Dedication Doubt is a normal response by a thinking person, but what you do with your doubt matters! My doubts about Creation and Evolution, as a teenager, caused me to refuse to read the Old Testament for years until I found myself teaching ancient history and was forced to confront the issue. Jesus, in response to a question as to what the greatest commandment is, said, "Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind." (Matt.22:37) Likewise Peter wrote, Always be prepared to give an answer to everyone who asks you to give the reason for the hope that you have. But do this with gentleness and respect. (1 Peter 3:15)

These instructions are for all who claim the name of Jesus Christ. ‘Faith Building Evidence’ is written to demonstrate that faith in Jesus as the Son of God is a rational life choice, based on the available evidence. What you chose to do with that evidence, is between you and God.

CONTENTS

Dedication

Acknowledgements

Endorsements

Formatting and Credits

Introduction

January

Evidence from the Patriarchs to the Conquest of Canaan (2nd m. BCE)

February

Places and Events Confirmed during the 1st millennium BCE

March

People Confirmed from the 1st millennium BCE

April

Old Testament Prophecies Fulfilled Prior to Jesus

May

Extra-biblical and Early Biblical Evidence of Jesus’ Existence

June

The Integrity of the New Testament Canon & Its’ Manuscripts

July

New Testament People, Places & Things Confirmed by History

August

The Uniqueness of Jesus’ Parables & Sayings

September

The Uniqueness of Jesus’ Claims & Miracles

October

Old Testament Messianic Prophecies Fulfilled by Jesus

November

Historical Evidence for the Passion Week Narrative

December

Answering the Critics: Atheists, Skeptics, Jews & Muslims

Appendix ‘A’: How do I become a Christian?

Appendix ‘B’: Suggested Reading List

References

JANUARY

INTRODUCTION

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Today, nearly 100 biblical figures, dozens of biblical cities, over 60 historical details in the Gospel of John, and 80 historical details in the book of Acts, among other things have been confirmed as historical through archeological and historical research. Moreover, the Israeli Antiquities Authority has 100,000 artifacts available on their database for perusal. ²

W hat can we learn from archeology? That depends! It depends on the period being studied (1000 years ago or 4000 years ago); the climate of the area (moisture levels, temperature); the historical setting (wars, institutional stability, literacy) materials used in construction or artifacts (clay brick, wood, stone); geography (desirability, isolation, population density); and present-day stability (wars, civil wars, terrorism -ISIS) among a multitude of other factors.

Our focus in January is approximately the 2nd millennium BCE (2000 – 1000 BCE) or the biblical period from the Patriarchs to the Conquest of Canaan. Each day’s evidence is a summary of an archeological or an historical evidence that sheds some light on a biblical event, place, person or period. One of the most valuable sources are articles from the Biblical Archeological Review (BAR) which publishes findings of archeologists with various points of view.

Two ongoing debates will become obvious over the course of the January entries: the debate between biblical minimalists and traditionalist; as well as the debate over the dating of the Exodus and the events that follow it. The first debate is addressed directly in several entries; the latter debate underlies many of the entries in the last third of the month. The objective for January is to demonstrate the general consistency between the archeological discoveries and the biblical record, even in this very early period.

JANUARY 1

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Over a century ago, the great would-be constructor of early Israelite history, Julius Wlhausen, claimed that no historical knowledge of the patriarchs could be gotten from Genesis. Abraham, Isaac and Jacob were merely a glorified mirage from a later Hebrew history, projected back in time. ³

Were the Patriarchs Fictional or Historical?

The Price of Slaves

I n Genesis, the first book of the Bible, the primary leaders of the ancient Hebrews (ancestors of the Jews) were called patriarchs. Were the patriarchs fictional creations of a much later period, the Babylonian Exile (6 th century BCE), or the historical founders of the Hebrew people as described in the Old Testament? Kitchen admits in his 1995 article that we do not have the names of the patriarchs in any of the extra-biblical material or written remains. This is not surprising when dealing with the 2 nd millennium BCE and he reminds his readers that the absence of evidence is not evidence of absence. ⁴

Rather Kitchen examines several lines of evidence from the biblical narrative to see if they compare with what we know, from extra-biblical sources, about the society and culture of the ancient Near East. Kitchen suggests the patriarchs, if they lived at all, should be dated to the first half of the second millennium BCE (the Middle Bronze Age, ca. 2200 – 1550 BCE). ⁵

The price of slaves is one line of evidence from ancient Near Eastern sources that is helpful: during the Akkad Empire (2371 – 2191 BCE) slaves were 15 silver shekels; in Ur (2113 – 2006 BCE) it dropped to 10 shekels. In the 19th & 18th centuries BCE Babylonian period, it was 20 shekels; by the 14th & 13th centuries BCE the price rose to 30 shekels; and. 500 years later in the Assyrian Empire the price was 50-60 shekels. By the 5th & 4th centuries BCE under the Persians, a slave cost 90 -120 shekels.

The Bible said Joseph was sold to the Ishmaelites for 20 silver shekels (Genesis 37:28) consistent with the 18th century BCE. In Exodus 21:32 Moses set the price of reimbursing a slaveowner at 30 shekels consistent with the price in the 14th & 13th centuries BCE. In 2 Kings 15:20 the price is set at 50 shekels under Assyria, again consistent with other sources. Consistency with non-biblical sources is demonstrated in each of these biblical accounts. How would Babylonian exiles, from the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, have known this historical data? There is no evidence they did. Therefore, it is more reasonable to accept that the biblical writers were more contemporary with the events they described.

JANUARY 2

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It is extraordinary that the treaties which, according to the Biblical chronology, fall in the patriarchal period resemble early second millennium BC treaties and the Sinaitic covenants resemble late second millennium BC treaties. In both cases, the Biblical chronology is supported by external evidence ⁶

Were the Patriarchs Fictional or Historical?

Treaties and Covenants:

K itchen’s second line of evidence compares the treaties and covenants in Genesis with those in other ancient Near Eastern sources. Only a brief summary can be provided here as the author examines Abraham’s alliance with the Amorite rulers in Genesis 14:13 in order to pasture his flocks, the treaties with Abimelech of Gerar in Genesis 21 and 26, and with Laban in chapter 31.

The 3rd millennium BCE Mesopotamian treaties are distinctly different from the early 2nd millennium BCE, which coincides with the time of the patriarchs. However, the patriarchs’ treaties compare closely with

some treaties [that] have become partly available from Mari and Tell Leilan dating to the early second millennium B.C., where we would place the patriarchs. These treaties exhibit a different basic format—similar to the patriarchal pacts in the Bible… The invocation of the deities and the oath by stipulations – prohibiting hostilities, establishing commercial ties, forming alliances, and so on. A ceremony may accompany the making of the treaty, consisting of a feast and sacrifice, or the exchange of gifts. ⁷

Kitchen then compares the Sinaitic covenants of the late 2nd millennium BCE with numerous Hittite imperial treaties from the same period. Here a seven-fold structure appears in both: a preamble, a brief historical prologue, stipulations, the text is deposited in a safe or sacred place, an altar or pillars stand as mute witnesses, then blessings and curses complete the sequence. ⁸

According to Kitchen:

• It is extraordinary that the treaties which, according to the Biblical chronology, fall in the patriarchal period resemble early second millennium B.C. treaties and the Sinaitic covenants resemble late second millennium B.C. treaties. In both cases, the Biblical chronology is supported by external evidence. ⁹

• The typology (study or classification of different types or symbols) of the treaties provided factual material that broadly substantiates the Biblical chronology ¹⁰

JANUARY 3

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At the time when Amraphel was king of Shinar, Arioch king of Ellasar, Kedorlaomer king of Elam and Tidal king of Goyim, these kings went to war against Bera king of Sodom, Birsha king of Gomorrah, Shinab king of Admah, Shemeber king of Zeboyim, and the king of Bela (that is, Zoar). All these latter kings joined forces in the Valley of Siddim (that is, the Dead Sea Valley). (Genesis 14:1-3)

Were the Patriarchs Fictional or Historical?

Geo-Political Conditions:

G enesis 14 describes a period of shifting alliances among the Canaanite and Mesopotamian kings. Abram, later called Abraham, is forced to rescue his nephew Lot from four kings of Elam, Mesopotamia and southern Anatolia (Turkey). According to Kitchen, there is only one period in Mesopotamian ancient history that would allow for this rise of petty kingdoms, and it coincides with Biblical chronology for the Patriarchal Era.

Kitchen’s reasoning goes as follows:

• In the late 3rd millennium BCE Mesopotamia was dominated by a single power, the Third Dynasty of Ur, which was overthrown in 2000 BCE.

• During the next 250 years no single power ruled Mesopotamia, instead there were major & minor city-states combining … ever-changing alliances.

• After the 18th century BCE the situation drastically changed in Mesopotamia with the triumph of Hammurabi of Babylon & Ahamsi-Adad 1 of Assyria.

• In Anatolia the chiefs and overlords were absorbed into the Hittite kingdom that dominated the area until about 1200 BC.

• Thus, there is one – and only one – period that fits the conditions reflected in Genesis 14 - the early 2nd millennium BC ¹¹

The biblical narrative in Genesis 14 is focused on Abram’s protection of Lot and his faithfulness to God. However, the background political setting is demonstrated to be consistent with the contemporary historical time, and only that time.

JANUARY 4

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Biblical references to Egypt provide additional evidence for dating the patriarchs to the Middle Bronze Age. Abraham (Abram) and Jacob both encounter Egyptian pharaohs. ¹²

Were the Patriarchs Fictional or Historical?

Consistency with Egyptian History

G enesis 12:10 – 20 describes Abram’s journey to Egypt because of a famine, and Genesis 45:28 – 47:28 describes Jacob, and his family going to Egypt during another famine. Jacob settled in Goshen, in the eastern Nile delta, and dies there 17 years later. Kitchen argues that there is no reason to believe that Abram went further into Egypt than Jacob and that both patriarchs encountered an Egyptian pharaoh in the eastern Nile delta.

Do these Biblical encounters align with Egyptian history? Kitchen’s reasoning is as follows:

• Under the XIIth and XIIIth Dynasties (17th to 12th centuries BCE), Egyptian pharaohs had a palace and temples in the eastern Nile delta.

• The Hyksos rulers took over Egypt in the 17th and 16th centuries BCE and continued the Egyptian pharaohs’ center and summer capital in the eastern Nile delta.

• Therefore, the Egyptian/Hyksos pharaohs had a presence in the eastern delta between the 20th and 16th centuries or the Middle Bronze Age.

• Prior to this period, there was no royal delta outpost, since the Old Kingdom pharaohs built only as far as Bubastis.

• After the 18th Dynasty expelled the Hyksos, they organized all their expeditions into Canaan from the capital, Memphis.

• There was no royal residence in the delta from 1550 – 1300 BCE.

• Consequently, the patriarchal period fell within the only time span that the Egyptian government had a presence in the eastern delta.

• These facts would hardly be known to someone writing in the sixth or fifth centuries B.C. ¹³

Traditionally biblical scholars suggest that Genesis was written by Moses ca. 1450 BCE. But described an earlier period. Kitchen’s analysis argues for the historicity of the biblical account and against the biblical minimalists who claim the patriarchs were a creation of post-exile priests, who wrote Genesis and Exodus in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE.

JANUARY 5

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Reuben, you are my firstborn, my might, the first sign of my strength… (Genesis 49:3a)

He must acknowledge the son of his unloved wife as the firstborn by giving him a double share of all he has. That son is the first sign of his father’s strength. The right of the firstborn belongs to him. (Deuteronomy 21:17)

Were the Patriarchs Fictional or Historical?

The Laws of Inheritance

T he laws of inheritance, like the cost of slaves, changed over time in the Bible and in the Near Eastern societies that form the context of the ancient Hebrews. In Genesis 49, Jacob blesses each of his sons prior to his death but the firstborn, Reuben, does not receive a ‘double portion’ of blessing. However, at the time of the Exodus, the laws of inheritance clearly specify that the eldest son receives a ‘double portion’ even if he is the son of a wife who is less favoured than another wife.

How does this correspond to extra-biblical sources?

• The 20th century BCE laws of Lipit – Ishtar provides for an equal portion for all children.

• The 18th century BCE laws of Hammurabi gave the sons of the first wife the ‘first choice.’

• The laws of Mari and Nuzi, from the 18th to the 15th centuries B.C. gave a natural first-born son a double share, while an adopted son did not.

• Neo- Babylonian laws, in the first millennium BCE, gave the sons of the first wife a double portion, while the sons of the second wife did not. ¹⁴

The inheritance of Jacob’s sons … and the law of double portion for the eldest at the time of the Exodus … are consistent with the development of inheritance laws as described in external texts – giving additional confirmation for our dating of the patriarchs to the Middle Bronze Age. ¹⁵

JANUARY 6

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Then the king of Sodom, the king of Gomorrah, the king of Admah, the king of Zeboyim and the king of Bela (that is, Zoar) marched out and drew up their battle lines in the Valley of Siddim against Kedorlaomer king of Elam, Tidal king of Goyim, Amraphel king of Shinar and Arioch king of Ellasar—four kings against five. (Genesis 14:8-9)

Genesis 14: Dead Sea Water Level Fluctuations

G enesis 14 tells of a war among nine petty kings in the Dead Sea region. Genesis indicates that Lot, Abram’s nephew, was captured and Abram gathered 318 trained men, pursued and defeated the victors, and freed Lot, along with the other captives. Although these passages have mystified many Biblical scholars, geologists find clues about the development of one of the most remarkable natural features in the world: the Dead Sea. ¹⁶

Geologists know that the waters of the Dead Sea have fluctuated over millennia. Interestingly, it is possible to chart the history of this fluctuation, in general terms. During the last 4000 years, the Dead Sea has most often been at approximately 1,300 feet below the level of the Mediterranean Sea. ¹⁷

In brief, the most dramatic rise was ca.3000 BCE when it rose to 1,150 feet below sea level. It dropped to ca. 1,300 feet about 2500 – 2000 BCE, then between ca.1500 – 1200 BCE the waters rose again, once more inundating the southern basin. Between 1200 – 100 BCE it fell again. ¹⁸ So what?

A careful look at the text of Genesis 14 reveals that at the time of the Patriarchs (ca.2100 – 1850 BCE), when the battle of the kings occurred, the southern basin of the lake was completely dry … What’s more, by the time the narrative was written down or edited … the valley upon which the battle was fought was completely inundated. ¹⁹

Again, this is evidence of the historical accuracy of the Genesis 14 account. In addition to the fluctuation of the Dead Sea water levels that allowed the location to be inhabitable at the proper time, Frumkin & Elitzur’s article provides two other types of evidence:

1. the accuracy of the details about the tar pits, and

2. the language changes of some of the locations mentioned in the Bible.

JANUARY 7

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Now the Valley of Siddim was full of tar pits, and when the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah fled, some of the men fell into them and the rest fled to the hills. (Genesis 14:10)

Genesis 14: Tar Pits and Language:

T he fluctuation of the water level of the Dead Sea not only exposed sections of the Dead Sea as dry land (southern basin) but also created another interesting geological feature. Frumkin & Elitzur explained the credibility of an obscure reference to tar pits.

That the place was ‘dotted with (or, more literally, full of) pits of slime’ (Genesis 14:10) further supports the identification of the battlefield as the then-dry southern part of the Dead Sea. Pits continuously form in this area even today as the water recedes. ²⁰

Not only does this type of detail accurately describe the land where the authors believe the battle occurred, but it lends credibility to the accuracy of the entire story recorded in Genesis 14, including:

• the battle itself

• the existence of Sodom and Gomorrah (whose kings are mentioned)

• the existence of Abram (Abraham)

• the accuracy of this early 2nd millennium BCE biblical account

The language of Genesis 14 also provides its own evidence that the narrative draws on very old traditions: it draws on archaic terms and mentions ancient nations such as Rephaim, Zuzim and Emim. ²¹ The authors go on to point out that several places are identified by two names:

• (the) king of Bela, which is Zoar (Genesis 14:2,8)

• En Mishpat which is Kadesh (Genesis 14:7)

• The valley of Shaweh which is the valley of kings (Genesis 14:7)

• The Valley of Siddim, which is the yam ha-melah / (Salt Sea) (Genesis 14:3) ²²

The authors indicated that most likely, the first name recorded was the name of the location at the time of the battle, which they place around 2000 BCE or the Middle Bronze Age, and the second is the name of the location at the time of writing, perhaps in the Late Bronze Age (1500 – 1200 BCE). ²³

JANUARY 8

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Geographically, the Bible is remarkably accurate. The sheer richness of the geographical and topographical information contained within Biblical stories…demonstrates that the writers themselves knew firsthand the physical stage upon which their characters, real or imagined, lived and moved. ²⁴

Where is Sodom?

A rcheologist Steven Collins believes he has discovered the location of the biblical city of Sodom at Tall el-Hammam in Jordan. Collins compares the geographic features of the site with the description in Genesis. Abram had settled between Bethel and Ai (Genesis 13:3) with his nephew Lot. However, their herdsmen began quarrelling so the decided to separate and Abram gave Lot his choice of land.

Lot looked up and saw that the whole plain (kikkar) of the Jordan was well watered, like the garden of the Lord, like the land of Egypt, toward Zoar…. So Lot chose for himself the whole plain (kikkar) of the Jordan… Abram lived in Canaan, while Lot lived among the cities of the plain (ha-kikkar) and pitched his tents near Sodom. (Genesis 13:10-12)

Collins notes that ‘kikkar’ referred to a ‘oval-shaped’ or disk shape but also to a disk shaped plain just north of the Dead Sea, on both sides of the Jordan. The area matches the features described in Genesis;

1. It’s located close to Beitin, believed to be the site of Bethel. Ai’s present site is disputed.

2. The area is a disk-shaped plain with ancient settlements (tells) on the east side.

3. It was well watered with springs, fertile and the Jordan acted like the Nile in Egypt, providing annual flooding that fertilized the land, which grew a multitude of crops.

4. The cities of the area where destroyed in the Middle Bronze Age. ²⁵

The historical evidence also supports Tall el-Hammam being the location of Sodom, according to Collins.

• In the Early Bronze Age (c. 3000–2350 B.C.E.), Tall el-Hammam was protected by enormous defenses, indicating a strong centralized government exercising hegemony over satellite settlements.

• There an immense defensive wall from the Early and Intermediate Bronze Age (ca. 3000 – 2000 B.C.E.) was incorporated into the later Middle Bronze Age fortification system (ca. 2000 – 1600 B.C.E.)

• In the Middle Bronze Age, a monumental gateway complex was constructed with four tower entrances through the city wall and a main passageway.

• "Then, toward the end of the Middle Bronze Age, about 1600 B.C.E., life on the eastern kikkar, including Tall el-Hammam and its satellites, suddenly came to an end—while the rest of the southern Levant continued into and through the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1550 – 1200 B.C.E.)"

• Tall el-Hammam nevertheless has vast quantities of ash associated with its terminal Middle Bronze Age stratum.

• The terminal destruction layer at Tall el-Hammam … consists of a matrix of heavy, dark ash mixed with fragments of pottery, mudbricks, a wide range of object fragments and human bone scatter.

• …surfaces melted into glass, with some bubbled up like frothy magma, indicating they were burned in a flash heat event far exceeding 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit. ²⁶

JANUARY 9

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When 11,000 clay tablets dating from 23 centuries before Christ were unearthed in northern Syria three years ago (1975), biblical scholars around the world rejoiced that ancient proof had been found for the Old Testament. "The tablets were being hailed as a find equal in importance to the Dead Sea Scrolls …The claims being made for these tablets created a sensation in biblical circles. ²⁷

The Ebla Tablets:

Supporting Evidence for the Old Testament

D o the Ebla Tablets provide any evidence in support of the Old Testament? Initially the discovery of the Ebla Tablets was believed to provide significant support for the Old Testament because it was claimed that the ‘five cities of the plain’ were listed in the same order as in Genesis 14. However, within a few years that claim was disproven because of errors in the translation. Personalities and politics also complicated the interpretation and by the early 80’s many discounted any claims of biblical support from the Ebla Tablets.

The difficulty of translating the 1600 Sumerian cuneiform tablets was complicated, as one translator explained, we are dealing with ‘texts written in an as yet very little-known dead language. ²⁸ Even with all the complications and negative conclusions about biblical links, Millard claims the Ebla dig has yielded valuable information on the general background to the Bible. ²⁹

• They reveal the height of culture reached in north Syria before the age of Abram.

• They reveal strong links between Syria & Babylonia from where Abram came.

• They reveal an extensive use of writing (letters, treaties, as well as documents from town and city secretaries, and from bureaucracies.)

• Destroyed by fire in the Early Bronze Age, Ebla re-emerged in the Middle Bronze Age with a strong defensive rampart, palaces & temples, contemporary with the patriarchal period. Abraham probably passed near it as it was being freshly reestablished. ³⁰

JANUARY 10

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A vast array of Biblical names that have not been found in any other ancient Near Eastern languages have been reported to have been found in similar forms in Eblaite (one of the two languages found on the tablets). For instance, the names of Adam, Eve, Abarama/Abraham, Bilhah, Ishmael, Esau, Mika-el, Saul and David have been found on the tablets. ³¹

The Ebla Tablets:

Names, Cities & Gold

W hat other evidence do the Ebla Tablets provide that support the Bible? Much has been written about the connection between the language of the Ebla Tablets and its similarity to ancient Hebrew. Both are Semitic languages, as are most of the languages in the ancient Fertile Crescent. There is considerable debate among the experts concerning the possible linkage between the two languages. ³²

The quote above lists several ‘biblical names’ found in the Ebla Tablets. These names do not refer to the biblical persons associated with them but provide an extra-biblical confirmation that such names were used in the region in ancient times. Also, several Biblical cities are mentioned by name in the Ebla tablets. For example, Ashtaroth, Sinai, Jerusalem, Hazor, Lachish, Megiddo, Gaza, Joppa, Ur, and Damascus are all reportedly referred to by name in the tablets. ³³

One more specific and intriguing discovery is the amount of fine gold jewellery found on ‘a princess’ in a tomb chamber in Ebla that corresponds to the descriptions in Genesis. When Genesis reports that Abraham was rich in gold (Genesis 13:2), we can imagine some of his capital was stored in such a form and carried for him by Sarah on her head and arms. ³⁴ In Genesis 24 Abraham’s servant, Eliezer, gave Rebekah a gold ring and two gold bracelets, likely similar to those worn by the princess unearthed in Ebla.

JANUARY 11

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The silence in the Egyptian sources as to the presence of Israel in the country is an obstacle to the notion of Israel’s sojourn. ³⁵ Niels Peter Lemche

The biblical narrative in the books of Genesis through Joshua owes more to the folkloristic tradition of the ancient Near East than to the historical genre. ³⁶ Bernard Batto

Were the Israelites ever in Egypt? ((Negative Evidence)

T he accuracy of the biblical account of the patriarchs entry into Egypt, the captivity of the Hebrews and the Exodus is rejected by modern minimalists because …1) the lack of corroborating archeological evidence in Egypt and the Sinai, 2) because they regard the Exodus narratives as myth, legends, folktales and/or 3) because the narratives were written so many centuries after the events and are so theologically and ideologically shaped that they cannot be read as history. ³⁷

Is this criticism legitimate? Evidence can be negative or positive. Hoffmeier provides both types of evidence to refute the first charge of the minimalists. He argues they have unrealistic expectations as to what archeology can deliver. ³⁸ Would you expect an inscription ‘bricks made by Hebrew slaves’ or assuming the Israelites were in Egypt during Egypt’s New Kingdom (ca.1540 – 1200 BC) what kind of pottery would have been used? What house plans would have been lived in? What sort of burial traditions did they practice? ³⁹

Further complicating the problem of archeology’s limitation is the fact that …

the types of royal inscriptions found on stelae and temples never include any negative reports about the Pharaoh and his armies. Rather, they speak of triumphs and deeds of valour, and even distort set-backs such as the near disaster to Ramesses II’s army at the battle of Kadesh … no one will ever find a stela commemorating the humiliation of Pharaoh as a result of the plagues or the defeat of Egyptian forces … [by] the fleeing Hebrews. ⁴⁰

In the same way that the absence of evidence is not evidence of absence, ⁴¹ neither is the absence of evidence, evidence of presence. So, is there any positive evidence of the Hebrews in Egypt during the Middle and Late Bronze Ages?

JANUARY 12

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Your father and your brothers have come to you, and the land of Egypt is before you; settle your father and your brothers in the best part of the land. Let them live in Goshen. (Genesis 47:6a)

Were the Israelites ever in Egypt? (Positive Evidence)

G oshen in the Nile Delta has few archeological sites and a high-water table that makes the survival of papyri unlikely. In fact, Hoffmeier references to two digs, one of 35 years and another of 25 years, that have not discovered any papyri. However, although this is a limitation, there are some clues archeology can provide to support the biblical record. Although not direct evidence of the Hebrews in Egypt, there is evidence of Semitic people entering Egypt’s Delta region much like the patriarchs did in Genesis 43. Hoffmeier provides several examples:

• Egyptian literature records a lament by a sage, Neferti (ca.1900 BCE) who complains of pastoralists from the East, Semitic-speaking people, who had infiltrated the Delta begging for water for their flocks.

• Centuries later, a papyrus from the reign of Pharaoh Merneptah (1213 – 1203 BC) records a report from a border fort of an Edomite tribe being permitted to water their flocks.

• Canaanite artifacts [were] found in the Delta and the Wadi Tumilat at more than half a dozen sites. ⁴²

• Some of these remains belonged to these pastoralists, while others can be attributed to Semitic-speaking peoples from the Levant (countries along the eastern Mediterranean shores) who settled in Egypt, some of whom became identified with the Hyksos who actually ruled Egypt from their capital at Avaris for at least a century (ca. 1650 – 1540 B.C.). ⁴³

• The Bible describes two types of forced labour on the Israelites, brick-making for building projects and farm work. ⁴⁴ Both are illustrated in a tomb painting of Rekhmire, Vizier of Thutmose III (1457-1425 BCE) by POWs from military campaigns in Canaan, Syria & Nubia.

• Records of brick-making teams, targets, and shortfalls are found on a leather scroll now in the Louvre that dates to the fifth year of Ramesses II (1275 BC). This is consistent with the quotas set on the Hebrew slaves in Exodus 5. including a complaint by an Egyptian that his men didn’t have enough straw to fill the quota. ⁴⁵

The question is, who are the Semitic people referred to in these illustrations and literary entries? What groups of Semitic peoples are mentioned in ancient records as having been in Egypt during this period? Certainly, the Hebrews must be considered as one serious contender.

JANUARY 13

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Reed huts more than 3,000 years old belonging to workers—perhaps slaves—and with the same floor plan as ancient Israelite four-room houses have been identified at Medinet Habu, opposite Luxor in Egypt. These reed huts may represent extra-Biblical evidence of Israel in Egypt. ⁴⁶

Evidence of Israelite homes in Egypt?

M anfred Bietak described the excavation of the Temple of Ay and Horemheb (ca.13 – 12 th century BCE) opposite the Temple of Luxor. The temple excavation revealed beautiful decorations, including fine relief carvings.

In the course of this excavation, the archaeologists discovered evidence of some rude makeshift huts … The excavators interpreted all this as evidence of workers’ huts, the walls of which were made of reeds plastered with mud or desert clay stamped around them and supported by intermittent posts in grooves in the bedrock. ⁴⁷

The huts were built inside the courtyard of the Temple, probably during construction or demolition.

From the evidence of postholes and trenches, the excavators were able to draw a careful plan of one entire workmen’s hut and part of another. The plan of the huts is actually marked in the bedrock. In vain, however, do we look to Egyptian house architecture for parallels. On the contrary, despite the flimsy construction of these huts, we find the same room configuration in the so-called Israelite four-room house in Palestine. ⁴⁸

The apparent similarity to the ‘middle-room house or ‘mittelsaalhaus’ is important for several reasons:

a Syrian-styled house (that) was built in Egypt’s Nile Delta… It was part of a Semitic community that settled on virgin grassland near one of the branches of the Nile Delta. By examining the cultural materials left behind, the excavators concluded that the people had come from the Canaan area and settled with the permission of the Egyptian state – no walls surrounded this prosperous community. ⁴⁹

The ‘middle-room house’ dates to the 19th century BCE and is consistent with the time and location of Jacob’s move to Egypt, but it needs to be remembered that the Hebrews were only one of several Semitic people. Similarly, the worker huts from the Temple of Ay and Horemheb are consistent with what we would expect from the Hebrew slaves, but again they are only one group of Semitic people located in the Fertile Crescent during Egypt’s expansionist New Kingdom. Both habitations raise a series of interesting questions, but further work is needed before any conclusive claims can be made.

JANUARY 14

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In 1200 B.C.E., the Late Bronze Age came to an end and was followed by Iron Age I, which extended from about 1200 to 1000 B.C.E. According to traditional scholarship, this 200-year archeological period can be identified with the Biblical period of the ‘settlement and judges’ prior to the formation of the Israelite monarchy in the tenth century B.C.E. ⁵⁰

Why was the Merneptah Stele a significant archaeological discovery?

M erneptah was a Pharaoh who ruled over Egypt in the late 13 th century BCE (ca.1208 BCE). The son of Ramesses the Great (Ramesses II), Merneptah was the fourth Pharaoh of the 19 th Dynasty. The Merneptah Stele is the name given to a stone slab engraved with a description of Merneptah’s military victories in Africa and the Near East. It was discovered by renowned British archaeologist Flinders Petrie at Thebes in 1896. ⁵¹

Why was the Merneptah Stele a significant archaeological discovery?

• The Merneptah Stele is significant to biblical archaeologists because it is the earliest extra-biblical reference to the nation of Israel yet to be discovered.

• The inscription concerning Israel is very short; it simply says, Israel is laid waste, its seed is not.

• Even though it’s brief, the reference to Israel is telling: It indicates that, at the time the inscription, people of Israel were significant enough to be included by name among several major city-states which were defeated by Merneptah in the late 13th century B.C.E.

• This implies that Israel was a major player in the region during the late 13th century, serving to corroborate to a degree the biblical narrative. ⁵²

• It also implies, that the Exodus from Egypt, if it happened, must have happened before this time to allow for the 40-year desert wandering, the conquest of Canaan and the establishment of the Israelite people as a recognized force in the region.

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Picture 02: The Merneptah Stele, containing the earliest

confirmed reference to Israelites in Egyptian history.

Used with permission from: Bible History Online Maps

https://www.bible-history.com/archaeology/egypt/2-israel-stela-bb.html

JANUARY 15

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During excavations in Egypt in the early twentieth century, inscriptions, some dating to the 12th or 13th century, have been found that mention a people called the Habiru who had settled in Egypt. Scholars think this is a reference to the Hebrew people, who later became known as the Israelites. If this identification is correct, then we have extra-biblical evidence that supports the Bible’s story of the Hebrew people entering Egypt and living there for a few centuries. ⁵³

Confirmation of the Merneptah Stele

I n 1977 archeologist Frank Yurco was examining hieroglyphic inscriptions located in the famous Karnak Temple’s outer western wall. Next to reliefs of four battle scenes were inscriptions that were placed over original inscriptions by a later pharaoh, a common practice in Egypt. The inscription was apparently of Sety II but Yurco expected the original inscriptions to show that the accompanying reliefs were battles of Ramses II. To his surprise he discovered, Sety II had the cartouches of Amenmesse partially erased by scraping away the surface of the plaster; he then had his own names incised into the plaster. The original names, those of Merenptah, were carved deepest and at a uniform depth. ⁵⁴

This was the first non-literary confirmation of the inscription on the famous Merneptah Stele (also called the Israel Stele). The relevant