Abridged Handbook of Grenadian Creole English and French Names: A Dictionary of Grenadian Creole English with Grammar & Syntax

By Thomas R. Chase and Zarah A. Chase

The handbook includes elements of Grenadian folklore, proverbs, and sayings. Much more work needs to be done in those areas. In fact, the proverbs and sayings are already the object of a separate publication that is well underway. A special section on French names and their meanings has also been included for primary school pupils and teachers, as well as foreigners to our shores. It deals with the names of places, people, patois nicknames, and French-sounding names.

Keywords, key expressions, or entries in the lexeme section and in other sections of the book are in bold type. Some of these terms may also be noted by an asterisk. The part of speech of the terms is noted, their pronunciation where deemed necessary for this particular publication, the origin of the term, and their meaning in SE/GCE. As a general rule, the most popular meanings of terms are in descending order of importance. The cultural and folkloric values of certain entries are noted in an effort to document such information and/or beliefs. Synonyms, antonyms, and cross references are given due prominence to show the richness of the language. Omitted from this work are terms considered to be too vulgar in nature, particularly the wealth of those referring to human sexual organs and expletives.

A comparative grammar section juxtaposes grammatical similarities and differences between SE and GCE. It is a scratching of the surface and is intended to show, first of all, that GCE has a grammar of its own, where traditionally certain linguistic performances were and may still be seen or written off as errors. In fact, they may be standard grammatical features of GCE and Creole English. This section explores as well the nature and origin of some of the syntactic structures used by Grenadians with a view to facilitate the transition from SE to GCE, or vice versa.

• Language: English
• Publisher: AuthorHouse
• Release date: Jan 30, 2018
• ISBN: 9781546216889

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© 2018 Thomas R. Chase and Zarah A. Chase. All rights reserved.

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means without the written permission of the author.

Published by AuthorHouse 01/29/2018

ISBN: 978-1-5462-1689-6 (sc)

ISBN: 978-1-5462-1688-9 (e)

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Because of the dynamic nature of the Internet, any web addresses or links contained in this book may have changed since publication and may no longer be valid. The views expressed in this work are solely those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher, and the publisher hereby disclaims any responsibility for them.

CONTENTS

Dedication

Acknowledgements

Foreword

Introduction

A. Origins and development of Grenadian Creole English

B. Pronunciation Tips

i. French words and words of French origin

◊   Oral vowels

◊   Nasal vowels

ii. Grenadian Creole English

◊   Vowels

◊   Consonants

C. Key to Abbreviations, Symbols and Type Set

Section I: General List Of Lexemes

Section II: French Names

1. French Toponymy

2. French Forenames and Patronymics

3. Other French Sounding Names

4. French and Patois Nicknames

Section III: Abridged Grenadian Creole English Grammar And Syntax

A. Grammar

1. The Noun Group

i. Determiners

ii. Nouns

iii. Pronouns

2. Adjectives

3. Adverbs

4. Prepositions

5. Conjunctions

6. Verbs

A. General Introduction

Auxiliary verbs

B. Tenses

C. Moods

D. Voice

E. Participles and their modifications

F. Modals

7. Interjections

B. Syntactical Issues

i. Zero finite verb sentences

ii. Impersonal expressions: It ha(ve)/ E ha// Een ha/ Een have// E doh ha(ve)

iii. English substitutions in French Creole noun groups

iv. English or GCE substitutions for French or French Creole phrasal verb base

v. Doublets

vi. English substitutions to French or French Creole syntax

vii. Zero subject with be

viii. Coordination of some infinitives

ix. Doubling of lexemes – adverbs/ adjectives

x. Affirmative and negative interrogations

xi. Subject verb agreement

xii. The plural it

Conclusion

Sources

Primary Sources

Secondary Sources

i.   Articles, Speech, Map

ii.   Web Sources

iii.   Texts

DEDICATION

To the living and only wise God who has blessed us with language and enabled us to accomplish this work. We dedicate it to all those who can appreciate the richness of our speech, culture and history – our voice.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This Handbook could not have been the same without the input of some persons who gave of their time, shared their memories, and discovered a dormant archive of Creole expressions within them. For some senior citizens, it was a walk through childhood memories. Younger contributors were a good testing ground for some French Creole expressions and French derived terms still in vogue, or of which they have no knowledge. For others, it was a corroborative exercise either to ensure that some terms and expressions were not just parochialisms or to see what entries rested with which generation.

Special thanks to: Professor Hazel Simmons-McDonald of the University of the West Indies, the Ministry of Education and the Board of Tourism for recognizing the value of the work for students, researchers, citizens and visitors; the many family members and friends who helped pave the way for this work, in particular my mother and father Alban and Nellie, my brothers Cephas, Richard and Phillip, my aunt Mrs. Sylvia Williams, my cousin Jennifer Williams; my mother-in-law Netha, Mr. Mark Fletcher, my sisters-in-law Judy Francis and Joan Harry; my colleagues and friends Mrs Glenda Mason-Francis, Christian Menduvé – the French Linguistic Attaché to Grenada in the late 1980’s, Glen Phillip, Cassandra Slocombe, Peter Thomas and Dr. D. Pitt of the Grenada Science and Technology Council of Grenada, Angella Joseph of Mt. St. Ervans, past French students of T.A.M.C.C. and and St. George’s University, TAMCC staff, Mrs. Valrie James, Dr. Meachel James, Gregory Delsol, Jeffrey Neptune, George Brizan, Basil Bonaparte, Mr. John McDonald, Alvin Samuel, Joanne Jacob, Mr and Mrs. Joseph Chateau.

Thomas R. Chase

FOREWORD

The title of this book suggests that its purpose is primarily to present the grammar and syntax of Grenadian Creole English, but the inclusion of a reference to French names as well as several of the entries in the lexicon and an entire section of the text itself devoted to French names point to an equally important purpose, namely, that of reminding us that Grenada once had a rich French Creole heritage and a language situation which included French Creole, Creole English and Standard Grenadian. While French Creole continues to be spoken for communicative purposes in Carriacou, more recent research suggests that this Creole is no longer widely spoken in Grenada. This book is therefore a timely gift not just to the people of Grenada but to those across the region who have a keen interest in the creoles and dialects that are spoken in our countries.

It is a carefully structured text that draws the reader effortlessly into the details of the main sections on English Creole and French Creole. The introduction provides a useful geographic and socio- historical context which provides an explanation for the predominance of Grenadian Creole English (GCE) and the ‘demise’, one might say of the use of French Creole for communicative purposes in Grenada. It also presents a framework for understanding the relationship of GCE to other varieties of Creole English that are spoken elsewhere and it comments on the status of the Creole, noting the negative attitudes that still exist towards it in certain quarters but pointing to its increased use and prevalence in Grenadian society, with the resulting difficulty that this poses for some young speakers of this variety as they attempt to use Standard Grenadian English for academic purposes.

The pronunciation guide for both French and Creole English words is set out in tabular form, first presenting the phonetic representation with corresponding examples that show how the sounds are represented in both French, GCE and Grenadian Standard. The orthography for French (rather than that of the Antillean French Creole variety developed by Louisy and Turmel-John (1983)¹ is used and this reflects the way in which the names are actually represented in writing. The comparative pronunciation for the representation of the French / French Patois vowels that have survived in GCE are presented according to the orthographic representation in French (e.g. Beaulieu) and phonemically for GCE (Bolyo). A description is also given to explain the difference in pronunciation in both forms. This allows the reader to make a useful and necessary connection between the graphic and oral representations of the forms. A short section is devoted to those consonants that vary in pronunciation for English, for example /th/ in initial, medial and final positions in words. The representations given for GCE are similar to those for most other varieties of Caribbean Creole English in which this sound is represented by either /d/ or/t/, and the examples will permit comparisons with other varieties.

An entire section lists the abbreviations that are used in the lexicon presented in Sections I and II. The definitions for the terms are clear, and a range of meanings are given where relevant as well as the function(s) or word class of the various terms. Several French / French Patois words are listed in the general list of lexemes thus attesting to the fact they have been incorporated into GCE and illustrating the usage of these terms in the Creole English. The inclusion of synonyms and antonyms for these terms is also a very useful resource.

The section on French toponymy is as carefully delineated as the section on phonetics that precedes Section I. Here, the authors present the French names, as well as the origin of the word, the English rendering of it, the meaning, and comments that provide further explanations and cross-references to other related words in the text. The second part to Section II lists words with origins from Etruscan, French, Latin and Greek and their meanings. The third and fourth sub-parts of Section II present additional French-sounding names and French / French Patois nicknames respectively. The extraction of these lists facilitates the location of selected terms for the reader and also contextualises them within specific categories.

In Section III, the final section of the text, the authors present an abridged grammar and syntax for GCE. This is organised according to word class and function with examples given in both GCE and Standard Grenadian English. This section, though labelled abridged is fairly comprehensive and it provides a very useful basis for comparison with other varieties in the region. The syntactic issues in the second part of this section cover some typical Creole issues such as the spurious notion of ‘simplification’ which has been shown in the literature, for example, Alleyne (1971)² to be a misunderstanding of the syntactic structure of the Creole forms and which the authors also rightly point out could result from the transfer of structures from the West African languages from which some of the creoles emerged in contact situations with other languages. A couple examples of a probable West African language origin is given with regard to zero finite verb sentences.

This book is a welcome addition to the body of literature on Creoles of the Caribbean, and it introduces GCE in an interesting way that is most accessible to the lay reader but which also has information that a seasoned linguist will find useful and fascinating. Teachers will also find in its pages explanations that will facilitate the teaching of English to young speakers of GCE. The authors have been systematic in its presentation, careful in presenting explanations and probing of the relevant issues related to GCE and the language situation in Grenada.

Dr. Hazel Simmons-McDonald

Professor of Applied Linguistics

University of the West Indies

INTRODUCTION

Grenada is a tri-island English speaking state situated 12.03o N., 61.45o W (at the bottom of the Eastern Caribbean chain of islands). It has a population of about 100,000, 82% of which is black and 18% of mixed Amerindian, European, Middle Eastern and East Indian descent.

A. Origins and development of Grenadian Creole English

Prior to the coming of the Europeans, Amerindian Arawaks and then Caribs from South America had settled on the island of Grenada, as they had done in other areas of the Eastern Caribbean. The Caribs, a more aggressive tribe, seemed to have pushed the Arawaks further and further north and had made it difficult for the British and the French to settle in Grenada. However, the French were the first to successfully colonise the island in the 1650s, after a failed English attempt in 1609. Grenada remained French until its capture by the British in 1762. The island was ceded to Britain in 1763 but was recaptured by the French in July 1779 during the American War of Independence. Britain regained control of the island in 1783 by the Treaty of Versailles.

Despite English rule over the island, the French Creole, which had developed on the island under French rule, remained one of the major languages used by the African diaspora on the island up to the 20th century. An English creole had also developed under English rule, setting the stage for a bilingual lingua franca, where the English based creole would replace or relexify the French Patois in the 20th century. Roberts, Todd and others have shown the existence of pidgins in West Africa, which would have also laid the foundation for the creoles spoken in the New World, including the Carribbean islands.

This work lists the lexemes, expressions, proverbs and French names used in Grenada. It shows an assimilation of the French Patois syntax, expression and lexemes into Grenadian Creole English (GCE). Traces of African linguistic structures and lexemes are also found in GCE. The myriad of languages and cultures from the indigenous Caribbean peoples, the Europeans, Asian and Middle Eastern immigrants further give GCE its flavourful richness in the region. Indeed, every wave of immigrants, contributed to the development and sustenance of the linguistic pepper pot Grenadians enjoy today. In fact, it is quite normal to try to infuse the language to be acquired with the syntax and lexemes from one’s mother tongue, albeit with varying degrees of success.

GCE shares a lot with Ebonics and Creole English spoken in other areas of the world. It has been strengthened through interstate marriages, travel, migration, and the propagation of Caribbean culture through the media, music, the arts and folklore, thus enlightening Grenada’s collective linguistic consciousness. As Grenada’s lingua franca, it is a vehicle of information and a cultural resevoir of paramount importance, especially for the New World diaspora whose customs, traditions and history have been handed down largely by the oral tradition and housed in the collective consciousness and living libraries of ancestors and their descendants. Our language is in part our history, bearing testimony of our voyage through time and space, either under the domination of other cultures or in reaction or interaction to the same. It is testimony of the paths we have travelled together or despite each other, modelling the language tools to meet the needs of our realities, imaginations and creativity in a world of cultural diversity, asimilation, fossilisation and/or rejection.

Still viewed as Broken English, Bad English, Grenadian dialect by many locals and others, today GCE is by far the dominant means of popular communication, even though Standard English (SE) is the official language. Its usage or influence in the local media, official gatherings and classrooms is very prevalent, offering strong competition to SE, with which many young Grenadians struggle today. In reality, SE is more of a Second Language (SL) or maybe even a Foreign Language (FL) for some, by reason of the strange English structures and sentences one may come across from time to time in casual conversation or in the classrooms.

Communication (orally or in writing) in SE is becoming more and more of a challenge for many as the influence of GCE grows in breath and depth from pre-school to tertiary levels. In fact more and more Grenadians, even at the tertiary level or in the workplace are finding it challenging to think in SE, let alone express themselves correctly or fluently in it over an extended period of time. It continues to be the language for many sermons and even some talk shows. It is often the language in which the thought processes of individuals are effected, making it difficult to communicate in Standard written or spoken English.

Some of the errors in print media and TV news are proof of the strength of the GCE mother tongue intrusion into SE. The time has come to recognise the importance of our language, to give it its official status by teaching its history and its grammar, stemming the flow of historical prejudices it faces in Grenada. Creole English should be taught in schools alongside Standard English. In fact, the time has come to start teaching Standard English as a Second Language, because it is certainly not our first, or as a Foreign Language, which is in fact the way in which too many of our tertiary students and other users treat it today.

This text will both help GCE users and others to cross the linguistic and cultural divide, and better understand and appreciate the norms of both languages. It will help strengthen both our national and Caribbean identity as Grenadian users of Creole English and Caribbean English. Our language matters.

Other Caribbean works have preceded this one, but the principal concerns of this document are not just to code our terms, but to show as much as is possible the evolution of our language and the originality of some of our lexemes and idioms. This work is a small but important gesture in:

• providing some answers as to the origins of some of the things we say

• coding the meaning of the terms we use and seeing their evolution over time

• providing a reference for the younger generation and

• preserving terms and expressions which one day may disappear in the face of growing cultural imperialism vehicled by media penetration.

Some of the terms included in this work are of historical value or terms derived from French. Some are spoken by kids 3+ (Marche dog; Oui…) Others are more frequently used by people thirty or forty years and over, while others may be parochial. Special focus is given to the different meanings or particularities we have retained for Standard English words. These choices were made with a view to promote the Abridged Handbook as a learning tool that may be used by educational institutions and the ordinary man in the street. Grenada’s linguistic heritage and history are fundamental parts of who we are. Words help shape identity, one’s scope on reality and focus on life.

This text is also important to the tourism industry and other sectors of business where communication is key, especially as Grenadian English gains currency in the media, business transactions, the classroom, cultural expression, etc. Moreover, GCE is part of the world’s linguistic and cultural heritage. It deserves to be coded, protected and given the same dignity ascribed to older languages. The best and true custodians of this cultural and linguistic métissage are the people.

Several linguistic strategies have been employed by our ancestors and their descendants in the use and development of our language. They include the preservation or transference of certain African linguistic concepts, patterns, lexemes and idioms. The same can be said of the French (Patois) and its influence on our English, where certain English terms have purely and simply been injected into French syntax. One common example of this is: E make hot. (Il fait chaud.) Other techniques used include imitations, adaptations or modifications, neologisms, the law of minimum linguistic effort, which produced aphetic and other losses, assimilation of phonemes, etc. Our linguistic performance is no different to that of other peoples of the world whose languages have moved from the oral to the written stage.

In coding some of the terms, we have drawn inspiration from the English, French, Spanish and Creole Alphabets. In some cases, we have chosen to keep the roots of original terms in order to preserve their etymological richness in the face of Creole realities or preferences. We were also cognisant of the need for a phonetic rendering of lexemes to facilitate pronunciation and/ or recognition of terms that have, hitherto, had no written form. Our language is our lingua carta on which the consciousness of many peoples have been smelted into a collective whole. We should at least appreciate it.

The Handbook includes elements of Grenadian folklore, proverbs and sayings. Much more work needs to be done in those areas. In fact, the proverbs and sayings are already the object of a separate publication that is well underway. A special section on French Names and their meanings has also been included for Primary School pupils and teachers, as well as foreigners to our shores. It deals with the names of places, people, patois nicknames and French sounding names.

Keywords, key expressions or entries in the lexeme section and in other sections of the book are in bold type. Some of these terms may also be noted by an asterisk. The part of speech of the terms is noted, their pronunciation where deemed necessary for this particular publication, the origin of the term, and their meaning in SE/ GCE. As a general rule, the most popular meanings of terms are in descending order of importance. The cultural and folkloric values of certain entries are noted in an effort to document such information and/or beliefs. Synonyms, antonyms and cross references are given due prominence to show the richness of the language. Omitted from this work are terms considered to be too vulgar in nature, particularly the wealth of those referring to human sexual organs and expletives.

A comparative grammar section juxtaposes grammatical similarities and differences between SE and GCE. It is a scratching of the surface and is intended to show, first of all, that GCE has a grammar of its own, where traditionally certain linguistic performances were and may still be seen or written off as errors. In fact, they may be standard grammatical features of GCE and Creole English. This section explores as well the nature and origin of some of the syntactic structures used by Grenadians with a view to facilitate the transition from SE to GCE or vice versa.

B. Pronunciation Tips

The pronunciation of GCE has been forged and enrichened by our different ancestors with their different phonological and linguistic competencies. These natural evolutionary linguistic and phonological forces continue to help shape GCE’s developmental path, as is the case of other more established languages and dialects. The following are some indicators to guide pronunciation and the coding of GCE sounds and words. In general, terms and expressions are written as they are pronounced. However, for etymological reasons, the base of certain terms have been kept to safeguard Patois, French, Spanish or African origin.

i. French words and words of French origin

The following is a pronunciation guide to the Patois and French terms present in GCE. That being said, some French terms may be anglicized in their pronunciation, for Beau Regard is pronounced /bori:ga:rd/.

◊ Oral vowels

Oral vowels allow for the passage of air only through the mouth and not through the nostrils.

◊ Nasal vowels

Some French and Patois nasal vowels have survived in GCE through the use of French terms and phrases or thanks to the influence of nasal consonants n. and m. French nasal vowels therefore refer to the pronunciation of vowel sounds by the passage of air principally through the nostrils, caused by anticipation in the pronunciation of the nasal traits of n. and m. In some cases, some French nasal vowels have been denasalized in GCE, as is the case of Grand Étang, Chemin, Colombier, Fontaine, Vendome, Lançaise, flambeau, Fréquenté, Perdsmmontemps (Pedmota), Morne Fendue, etc. Others are assimilated by other vowels. See chart below for some of the changes.