Healthcare Paradigms in the Internet of Things Ecosystem

By Valentina Emilia Balas

Health Care Paradigms in the Internet of Things Ecosystem brings all IoT-enabled health care related technologies into a single platform so that undergraduate and postgraduate students, researchers, academicians and industry leaders can easily understand IoT-based healthcare systems. The book uses data and network engineering and intelligent decision support system-by-design principles to design a reliable IoT-enabled health care ecosystem and to implement cyber-physical pervasive infrastructure solutions. It takes the reader on a journey that begins with understanding the healthcare monitoring paradigm in IoT-enabled technologies and how it can be applied in various aspects.

In addition, the book walks readers through real-time challenges and presents a guide on how to build a safe infrastructure for IoT-based health care. It also helps researchers and practitioners understand the e-health care architecture through IoT and the state-of-the-art in IoT countermeasures.

Readers will find this to be a comprehensive discussion on functional frameworks for IoT-based healthcare systems, intelligent medicine, RFID technology, HMI, Cognitive Interpretation, Brain-Computer Interface, Remote Health Monitoring systems, wearable sensors, WBAN, and security and privacy issues in IoT-based health care monitoring systems.

• Presents the complete functional framework workflow in IoT-enabled healthcare technologies
• Explains concepts of location-aware protocols and decisive mobility in IoT healthcare
• Provides complete coverage of intelligent data processing and wearable sensor technologies in IoT-enabled healthcare
• Explores the Human Machine Interface and its implications in patient-care systems in IoT healthcare
• Explores security and privacy issues and challenges related to data-intensive technologies in healthcare-based Internet of Things

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Nov 7, 2020
• ISBN: 9780128199206

Book preview

Healthcare Paradigms in the Internet of Things Ecosystem

Editors

Valentina E. Balas

Professor, Department of Automatics and Applied Software, University Aurel Vlaicu, Arad, Romania

Souvik Pal

Associate Professor, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Global Institute of Management and Technology, West Bengal, India

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Contributors

About the editors

Preface

About the book

Chapter 1. The fundamentals of Internet of Things: architectures, enabling technologies, and applications

1. Introduction

2. Internet of Things

3. Architecture of IoT

4. Enabling technologies of IoT

5. Applications of IoT

6. Research challenges and issues in IoT

7. Summary

Chapter 2. IoT for healthcare industries: a tale of revolution

1. Introduction

2. Component and mechanism of IoT

3. IoT in healthcare

4. Reducing healthcare costs with IoT

5. Challenges of using IoT in the healthcare segment

6. Conclusion

Chapter 3. Big data based hybrid machine learning model for improving performance of medical Internet of Things data in healthcare systems

1. Introduction to Big Data and IoT

2. Relationship between Internet of Things and Big Data

3. Role of Big Data and IoT in Healthcare Systems

4. Architecture of Apache Flume and Spark

5. Data analytics for IoT using Big Data analytics

6. Big Data pipeline for IoT data storage and processing

7. Conclusion and future directions

Chapter 4. The role of Internet of Things for adaptive traffic prioritization in wireless body area networks

1. Introduction to wireless body area network

2. Hardware architecture of biomedical sensor

3. Applications of medical sensors

4. Data dissemination protocols in WBAN

5. Introduction to Internet of Things

6. Open issues of WBAN

7. Open issues of IoT

8. Conclusion

Chapter 5. Spatiotemporal pattern and hotspot detection of malaria using spatial analysis and GIS in West Bengal: an approach to medical GIS

1. Introduction

2. Data and methods

3. Results and analysis

4. Discussion

5. Recommendations

6. Conclusions

Chapter 6. Integration of Cloud and IoT for smart e-healthcare

1. Introduction

2. Related work and application areas

3. Background terms

4. Cloud IoT integration for healthcare systems

5. Cloud IoT complimentary aspects and drivers for integration

6. Architecture framework for healthcare system

7. A Conceptual Healthcare Scenario

8. Design considerations for healthcare architecture

9. Cloud IoT security threats and issues

10. Platforms and services

11. Challenges and open issues

12. Discussion and conclusion

Chapter 7. IoT-based location-aware smart healthcare framework with user mobility support in normal and emergency scenario: a comprehensive survey

1. Introduction to smart and remote healthcare system

2. Introduction of location-aware healthcare system with mobility support

3. Learning techniques for healthcare system

Chapter 8. Remote health monitoring protocols for IoT-enabled healthcare infrastructure

1. Introduction

2. System architecture for IoT-based healthcare

3. Potential applications

4. Research challenges

5. Overview of protocol standards

6. Energy-aware protocols for IoT-based healthcare applications

7. Overview of protocols for proactive health monitoring systems

8. Open research issues

9. Conclusions

Chapter 9. Wearable sensor networks for patient health monitoring: challenges, applications, future directions, and acoustic sensor challenges

1. Introduction

2. Key enabling technique of a wearable body network: sensing

3. Human activity monitoring and e-health sensors

4. Computable indications in healthcare monitoring

5. Transportable devices

6. Attachable devices

7. Textile-based wearable devices and appliances

8. Measurement mechanism

9. Wearable sensor applications

10. Underwater wireless sensor network

11. Short note on next-generation sensor networks

12. Conclusions and future work

Chapter 10. RFID technology in health-IoT

1. History

2. Introduction

3. IoT and RFID technology

4. Functions of RFID technology

5. Applications of RFID technology

6. Challenges of RFID technology

7. IoT healthcare networks

8. IoT healthcare services

9. IoT healthcare applications

10. IoT healthcare industry developments and status

11. IoT system for in-home healthcare

12. Conclusion

Chapter 11. Principles and paradigms in IoT-based healthcare using RFID

1. Introduction

2. IoT-based healthcare architecture

3. Why need IoT

4. Challenges in IoT healthcare

5. IoT-driven system in IoT healthcare

6. RFID technology and its working

7. Current RFID technology

8. RFID in healthcare

9. RFID technology for IoT-based personal healthcare

10. RFID security concern

11. Recommendation

12. Conclusion

Chapter 12. Low-cost system in the analysis of the recovery of mobility through inertial navigation techniques and virtual reality

1. Introduction

2. Materials and methods

3. Results

4. Conclusions

Chapter 13. Control and remote monitoring of muscle activity and stimulation in the rehabilitation process for muscle recovery

1. Introduction

2. Materials and methods

3. Results

4. Conclusions

Chapter 14. Healthcare technology trade-offs for IoT ecosystems from a developing country perspective: case of Egypt

1. Introduction

2. Current state of the art

3. Architecture and components

4. Architecture and components

5. Emerging applications

6. Opportunities and challenges for the future

7. Conclusions

Chapter 15. Study of asian diabetic subjects based on gender, age, and insulin parameters: healthcare application with IoT and Big Data

1. Introduction and background

2. Big Data characteristics

3. Tension-type headache

4. Migraine versus TTH

5. Mental health

6. Diabetes mellitus and its symptoms

7. Literature survey

8. Results, interpretation, and discussion

9. About the study and analysis

10. Novelties in our work

11. Future scope, limitations, and possible applications

12. Tableau S/W, applications with benefits

13. Recommendations and future considerations

14. Conclusion

Chapter 16. Design and development of IoT-based decision support system for dengue analysis and prediction: case study on Sri Lankan context

1. Introduction

2. Internet of things, cloud computing, and fog computing

3. IoT-based decision support system for dengue analysis and prediction

4. Proposed architecture for dengue analysis and prediction decision support system

5. Conclusion and future works

Index

Copyright

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Contributors

Aya Sedky Adly,     Faculty of Computers and Artificial Intelligence, Helwan University, Cairo, Egypt

Afnan Sedky Adly

Faculty of Physical Therapy, Cardiovascular-Respiratory Disorders and Geriatrics, Laser Applications in Physical Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt

Faculty of Physical Therapy, Internal Medicine, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, Egypt

Mahmoud Sedky Adly,     Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom

Navneet Arora,     Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India

Muhammad Waseem Ashraf,     GC University, Lahore, Pakistan

Wilver Auccahuasi,     Universidad Continental, Facultad de Ingeniería, Huancayo, Perú

Justiniano Aybar,     Universidad Continental, Facultad de Ingeniería, Huancayo, Perú

Valentina Emilia Balas,     Department of Automatics and Applied Software, University Aurel Vlaicu Arad, Romania

Grisi Bernardo,     Universidad Continental, Facultad de Ingeniería, Huancayo, Perú

Madelaine Bernardo,     Universidad Continental, Facultad de Ingeniería, Huancayo, Perú

Riddhi Kumari Bhadoria,     Computer Science and Engineering, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology, Nadia, West Bengal, India

Heena Farooq Bhat,     Department of Computer Science, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, J&K, India

Suparna Biswas,     Computer Science and Engineering, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology, Nadia, West Bengal, India

Bhanu Chander,     Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry, India

D.K. Chaturvedi,     Dayalbagh Educational Institute, Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India

Pruthviraj Choudhari,     Department of Computer Science Engineering, MANIT, Bhopal, MP, India

Chandreyee Chowdhury,     Computer Science and Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Mónica Diaz,     Universidad Continental, Facultad de Ingeniería, Huancayo, Perú

Trina Dutta,     Department of Chemistry, JIS College of Engineering, Kalyani, West Bengal, India

Edward Flores,     Universidad Continental, Facultad de Ingeniería, Huancayo, Perú

Alfonso Fuentes,     Universidad Continental, Facultad de Ingeniería, Huancayo, Perú

Vishal Goyal,     Department of Computer Science, Punjabi University, Patiala, India

Mayank Gupta,     Tata Consultancy Services, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India

Aboobucker Ilmudeen,     Department of Management and Information Technology, Faculty of Management and Commerce, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Oluvil, Sri Lanka

Sweta Jain,     Department of Computer Science Engineering, MANIT, Bhopal, MP, India

Waqas Khalid,     The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan

Asif Iqbal Khan,     Department of Computer Science, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, J&K, India

Prateeti Kumar,     Quantitative Trading Department, Edelweiss Financial Services, Mumbai, India

Kumaravelan,     Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry, India

P lalitha Surya Kumari,     Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation, Deemed to be University, Hyderabad, Telangana, India

Sushobhan Majumdar,     Department of Geography, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Elizabeth Oré,     Universidad Continental, Facultad de Ingeniería, Huancayo, Perú

Shabir Ahmad Parah,     Department of Electronics and Instrumentation Technology, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, India

Subhadeep Pramanik,     Analytics Lab, Marsh & McLennan Companies, Mumbai, India

Chi-Man Pun,     Department of Computer and Information Science, University of Macau, Macau SAR, China

Mamoon Rashid,     School of Computer Science & Engineering, Lovely Professional University, Jalandhar, India

Rohit Rastogi,     ABES Engineering College, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India

Sathi Roy,     Jadavpur University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Jayita Saha,     Computer Science and Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Santosh Satya,     Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India

Mamta Saxena,     Director General, Min. of Statistics and Planning, GoI, New Delhi, India

Fernando Sernaque,     Universidad Continental, Facultad de Ingeniería, Huancayo, Perú

Junaid Latief Shah,     Department of Information Technology, Sri Pratap College, Cluster University Srinagar, Srinagar, J&K, India

Ayushi Srivastava,     Department of Computer Science Engineering, MANIT, Bhopal, MP, India

Harjeet Singh,     Department of Computer Science, Mata Gujri College, Fatehgarh Sahib, India

Parul Singhal,     ABES Engineering College, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India

Shahzadi Tayyaba,     The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan

Fasee Ullah,     Department of Computer and Information Science, University of Macau, Macau SAR, China

Aabid Rashid Wani,     Department of Electronics & Communication, Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University, Katra, India

About the editors

Valentina Emilia Balas is currently Full Professor in the Department of Automatics and Applied Software at the Faculty of Engineering, Aurel Vlaicu University of Arad, Romania. She holds a PhD in Applied Electronics and Telecommunications from Polytechnic University of Timisoara. Dr. Balas is author of more than 300 research papers in refereed journals and international conferences. Her research interests are in Intelligent Systems, Fuzzy Control, Soft Computing, Smart Sensors, Information Fusion, Modeling, and Simulation.

She is the Editor-in Chief to International Journal of Advanced Intelligence Paradigms (IJAIP) and to International Journal of Computational Systems Engineering (IJCSysE), member in Editorial Board of several national and international journals, and evaluator expert for national, international projects, and PhD Thesis. Dr. Balas is the director of Intelligent Systems Research Centre in Aurel Vlaicu University of Arad and Director of the Department of International Relations, Programs and Projects in the same university. She served as General Chair of the International Workshop Soft Computing and Applications (SOFA) in eight editions 2005–18 held in Romania and Hungary. Dr. Balas participated in many international conferences as Organizer, Honorary Chair, Session Chair, and member in Steering, Advisory or International Program Committees.

She is a member of EUSFLAT, SIAM, a senior member of IEEE, member in TC—Fuzzy Systems (IEEE CIS), member in TC—Emergent Technologies (IEEE CIS), and member in TC—Soft Computing (IEEE SMCS). Dr. Balas was past Vice-President (Awards) of IFSA International Fuzzy Systems Association Council (2013–2015) and is a Joint Secretary of the Governing Council of Forum for Interdisciplinary Mathematics (FIM), a multidisciplinary academic body, India. Dr. Balas is the director of the Department of International Relations, Programs and Projects and Head of the Intelligent Systems Research Centre in Aurel Vlaicu University of Arad, Romania.

Dr. Souvik Pal is an Associate Professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Global Institute of Management and Technology, West Bengal, India. Prior to that, he had been associated with Brainware University, Kolkata; JIS College of Engineering, Nadia; Elitte College of Engineering, Kolkata; and Nalanda Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar. Dr. Pal has received his B. Tech, M. Tech, and PhD degrees in the field of Computer Science and Engineering. He has more than a decade of academic experience. He is author/co-editor of 12 books from reputed publishers like Elsevier/Springer/CRC Press/Wiley, and he is owner of 3 patents. He is the series editor of Scrivener-Wiley Publishing, USA. Dr. Pal has published a number of research papers in Scopus/SCI-indexed international journals and conferences. He is the organizing Chair of RICE 2019, Vietnam; RICE 2020, Vietnam; ICICIT 2019, Tunisia. He has been invited as a Keynote Speaker in ICICCT 2019, Turkey; ICTIDS 2019, Malaysia. His professional activities include roles as Associate Editor/Editorial Board Member for more than 100 international journals/conferences of high repute and impact. His research area includes Cloud Computing, Big Data, Internet of Things, Wireless Sensor Network, and Data Analytics.

Preface

This book aims to bring together leading academic scientists, researchers, and research scholars to exchange and share their experiences and research results on all aspects of Internet of Things (IoT)-enabled healthcare technologies. It also provides a premier interdisciplinary platform for researchers, practitioners, and educators to present and discuss the most recent innovations, trends, and concerns as well as practical challenges encountered and solutions adopted in the fields of IoT healthcare. This book aims to attract researchers and practitioners who are working in Information Technology and Computer Science. This book is about basics and high-level concepts regarding healthcare paradigm in the context of Internet of Things. It is becoming increasingly important to develop adaptive, patient-centric, energy-aware, secure, and privacy-aware mechanisms in IoT-based health applications. The IoT-enabled healthcare mechanisms are required to develop a smarter mankind using IoT-enabled technologies. The book serves as a useful guide for industry persons and also helps beginners to learn things from basic to advance in the area of better healthcare. The book is organized into 16 chapters.

Chapter 1 discussed IoT as a diversified subject due to its varied meanings and perceptions and requires sound technical knowledge and understanding before its use. It will lead to the development of efficient mechanisms with high scalability and interoperability features among the things or objects. IoT is a reality that is progressing day by day, connecting billions of people and things to form a vast global network. IoT has applications in various domains like agriculture, industry, military, and personal spaces. There are potential research challenges and issues in IoT that act as a hurdle in the complete exploration of IoT in real-time implementation. Various organizations and enterprises have encouraged further research and study in IoT, which would prove essential in the global acceptance of IoT.

Chapter 2 focus on how devices are used and the way world interacts with current healthcare system; it can be said without any doubt that IOT is bringing ground-breaking revolution in healthcare industry. This has severe enactment scope, but is not limited to hospitals, patients, insurance agencies, families, etc. Here we will talk about how IoT-based tactics are transfiguring healthcare industries in contrast with traditional approach.

Chapter 3 presents a new Big Data pipeline solution for storing and processing IoT medical data. The proposed Big Data processing platform uses Apache Flume for efficiently collecting and transferring large amounts of IoT data from Cloud-based server into Hadoop Distributed File System for storage of IoT-based sensor medical data. Recursive Feature Elimination with Cross Validation (RFECV) is used for eliminating the features of less importance. Apache Spark is to be used for processing this real-time data. Next the authors propose the use of hybrid prediction model of density-based spatial clustering of applications with noise (DBSCAN) to remove sensor data outliers and provide better accuracy in diabetes disease detection by using Random Forest machine learning classification technique. The authors believe that this Big Data pipeline will greatly help in efficient storage of IoT application medical data and will provide a viable solution for effective processing and predicting disease from medical IoT data.

Chapter 4 deals with the concept of monitoring vital signs of patients and sends the detected reading of vital signs of patients to medical doctors for optimal actions. There are routing and medium access control (MAC) protocols discussed in detail with pros and cons regarding dissemination of patient's data toward the body coordinator and medical staff. In the same way, IoT has introduced to cover up the limitations of WBAN in transmission of data with the architectural design. At the end, some open challenges are discussed of WBAN and IoT.

Chapter 5 presented spatiotemporal diffusion pattern of the malaria affected areas in the places near the Kolkata district. By the district-level analysis it has been found that the urban areas are more affected by the malaria than the rural areas. The hotspot analysis showed the spatial pattern of malaria disease. This study represents useful information about the malaria affected areas of West Bengal. It may help the health departments of West Bengal and policymakers to make planning strategies to prevent from malaria. The methodology used in this malaria study can also be applied to the other studies like dengue, influenza, etc.

Chapter 6 explores seamless applications dispensed by Cloud IoT platform and contemplates discussion on factors driving Cloud IoT health integration. The chapter presents a conceptual architectural framework for healthcare monitoring system that considers a range of aspects including data collection, transmission, and processing including cloud storage. The chapter also discusses a use case scenario that identifies actors and data flows responsible for transforming sensor data into real-time transmission to cloud. Also, a brief discussion on design considerations for healthcare architecture will be provided. The work in this chapter also highlights security issues affecting IoT layered architecture including vulnerabilities inherent in the Cloud. These vulnerabilities could render healthcare services nonfunctional and critical patient information can be abused by malevolent users. Also a brief discussion on some potential mitigation measures will be provided. The chapter also elaborates discussion on various Cloud IoT platforms that aim at solving heterogeneity issues between the Cloud and Things. Finally, the chapter concludes by identifying some open research issues and challenges hampering Cloud IoT–based healthcare adoption.

Chapter 7 analyzes the IoT-based healthcare which is getting immensely popularized because it is cost-effective, user-friendly, intelligent, and efficient providing location-aware support both in normal and emergency scenarios. Here functional framework of IoT-based healthcare with the state-of-the-art literature survey have been illustrated, followed by location-aware protocols, learning techniques for intelligent healthcare, and future research directives igniting interests of researchers in this emerging domain.

Chapter 8 aims how quality of treatment can be improved through constant medical supervision of patients under free-living conditions which augment the existing medical infrastructure. Challenges such as providing energy efficiency, timely data delivery, and reliable delivery of health data need to be taken care of while designing protocols for such a system. In this chapter, the system architecture for remote health monitoring, issues in designing protocols for such a system are discussed. Both proactive system and energy-aware state-of-the-art protocols are thoroughly reviewed along with protocol standards. Open issues are also described to indicate the need to work further in this domain.

Chapter 9 discussed regarding detailed preface to wearable sensor networks, sensing technology, human activity monitoring computable indications and respective measurements, electronic-based wearable sensor devices, and energy resources technologies and various wearable sensor appliances. Wireless transmission in underwater is one of the enabling technologies for the development of future ocean observation technology, and it is one of the speedily rising skills. Underwater sensor networks (UWSNs) are a collection of sensors and autonomous vehicles that position to perform monitoring appliances. UWSNs gather records in association with seismic, robots, and pollution monitoring appliances. Energy-saving methods is one of the prominent issues in UWSNs where routing protocols play the main role since underwater sensor node batteries are difficult to replace. Preface of underwater sensors and its architecture, routing protocols and their methods, applications of UWSNs, and issues with future challenges are discussed briefly.

Chapter 10 focuses history, introduction of IoT and RFID technology, challenges of RFID technology, applications of RFID technology, IoT healthcare networks, IoT healthcare industry developments and status, system for in-home healthcare, the food-IoT survey of technologies, and applications of Internet of Things.

Chapter 11 is about RFID in healthcare with IoT. The main focus has been given on IoT and RFID in healthcare. After the discussion of IoT, in second half of this chapter authors have discussed the RFID technology in healthcare including working principle and implementation in healthcare system. Finally some security concern of this technology has also been discussed with solution.

Chapter 12 is based on the use of video game technologies with a virtual reality approach based on the video game Minecraft, as mechanism of registration of the displacement at the moment of the march, an inertial navigation circuit is used to register the direction, displacement, deviation at the time the child walks interacting with the game, giving the feeling that the child is inside the video game; interaction and control is done wirelessly using a Bluetooth connection or a Wi-Fi connection depending of the distance between the child and the workstation; the results in the tests show that the child has better acceptance at the time he performs the rehabilitation exercises and at the time he moves to analyze the progress because it is part of the video game; as well as you can record the movements made and can graph it to assess its center of gravity and linearity in the displacement.

Chapter 13 exemplified control and remote monitoring of muscle activity and stimulation in the rehabilitation process for muscle recovery.

Chapter 14 focuses on the evolution of the Internet of Things over the past years that has impacted a new era of healthcare ecosystems in the context of Egypt. IoT-based healthcare ecosystems consist of interconnected devices which communicate with each other in order to monitor, collect, process, share, and analyze data by secured means with the support of Cloud computing and Big Data analytics. Elderly, patients who need rehabilitation, or those with chronic diseases usually need expensive long-term care which could be reduced by the IoT health services with the assistance of sensors and wearable devices. For a developing country such as Egypt, an efficient architecture that is compatible with the feasible technologies, requirements, and market demands is currently considered mandatory for integrating Internet of Things with healthcare and ecosystems standards and technologies. This chapter will be addressing these concerns along with the emerging applications and challenges for the future.

Chapter 15 aims to analyze diabetes with the latest IoT and Big Data analysis techniques and its correlation with stress (TTH) on human health. Authors have tried to include age, gender, and insulin factor and its correlation with diabetes. IoT helps us to connect each other, i.e., it is known a smart connecting thing (a sort of Universal Global Neural Network in Cloud). It comprises of smart connecting machine with other machine, object, and a lot more. Big Data refers to huge sets of data which are also large enough in terms of variety and velocity. Due to this, it becomes more difficult to handle, organize, store, process, and manipulate such data using traditional techniques of storage and processing. Stress especially TTH (tension-type headache) is a serious problem in today's world. Now every person in this world is facing headache and stress-related problems in daily life. This chapter tries to make some study over that.

Chapter 16 presents a fresh approach in fuzzy rule–based neural classification with IoT, Cloud computing, and fog computing to analyze and predict dengue outbreak. The proposed fog-driven IoT architecture where each component is seamlessly connected to each other to execute disease management, preventative care, clinical monitoring, early warning systems, e-medicine, and drug and food recommender system. This IoT-based decision support system aims to stop, control, and enable forecasting of eruptions of dengue, facilitating medical officers the information and insights to handle the outbreak, well in advance.

We are sincerely thankful to Almighty to supporting and standing at all times with us, whether it's good or tough times and given ways to concede us. Starting from the call for chapters till the finalization of chapters, all the editors have given their contributions amicably, which it's a positive sign of significant teamwork. The editors are sincerely thankful to Chris Katsaropoulos for providing constructive inputs and allowing an opportunity to edit this important book. We are thankful to a reviewer who hails from different places in and around the globe shared their support and stand firm toward quality chapter submission.

Valentina Emilia Balas

Souvik Pal

About the book

The Book is intended to discuss the evolution of healthcare-related issues using Internet of Things (IoT). The main focus of this volume is to bring all the IoT-enabled healthcare-related technologies in a single platform, so that Undergraduate and Postgraduate students, Researchers, Academicians, and Industry people can easily understand the IoT-based healthcare systems. The book focuses on functional framework workflow in IoT-enabled healthcare technologies. This book uses data and network engineering and intelligent decision support system-by-design principles to design a reliable IoT-enabled healthcare ecosystem and to implement cyber-physical pervasive infrastructure solutions. This book will take the readers on a journey that begins with understanding the healthcare monitoring paradigm in IoT-enabled technologies and how it can be applied in various aspects. It walks readers through engaging with real-time challenges and builds a safe infrastructure for IoT-based healthcare. This book helps researchers and practitioners to understand the e-healthcare architecture through IoT and the state-of-the-art in IoT countermeasures. It also differentiates heterogeneous platforms in IoT-enabled infrastructure from traditional ad hoc or infrastructural networks. It provides a comprehensive discussion on functional framework for IoT-based healthcare systems, intelligent medicine box, RFID technology, HMI, cognitive interpretation, BCI, remote health monitoring systems, wearable sensors, WBAN, and security and privacy issues in IoT-based healthcare monitoring systems. This book brings together some of the top IoT-enabled healthcare experts throughout the world who contribute their knowledge regarding different IoT-based e-healthcare aspects. This book aims to provide the concepts of related technologies regarding patient-care and medical data management, and novel findings of the researchers through its Chapter Organization. The primary audience for the book incorporates specialists, researchers, graduate understudies, designers, experts, and engineers who are occupied with research and healthcare-related issues. The book will be organized in independent chapters to provide readers great readability, adaptability, and flexibility.

Chapter 1: The fundamentals of Internet of Things: architectures, enabling technologies, and applications

Sweta Jain, Pruthviraj Choudhari, and Ayushi Srivastava     Department of Computer Science Engineering, MANIT, Bhopal, MP, India

Abstract

Internet of Things (IoT) is a well-known term that has gained massive encouragement over a few years. The future of the human race will be significantly influenced by the application of IoT over the coming years. IoT has not only the capacity to improve the standards of living by giving control over the things but also converting the physical objects to intelligent or smart virtual devices. IoT is a diversified subject due to its varied meanings and perceptions and requires sound technical knowledge and understanding before its use. It will lead to the development of efficient mechanisms with high scalability and interoperability features among the things or objects. IoT is a reality that is progressing day by day, connecting billions of people and things to form a vast global network. IoT has applications in various domains like agriculture, industry, military, and personal spaces. There are potential research challenges and issues in IoT that act as a hurdle in the complete exploration of IoT in real-time implementation. Various organizations and enterprises have encouraged further research and study in IoT, which would prove essential in the global acceptance of IoT.

Keywords

Internet of Things; IoT architecture; RFID; Smart technology; WSN

1. Introduction

With the increasing use of the Internet and its variety of applications, there is an increase in the number of interconnected and Internet-connected devices. Nowadays, the Internet is used in every type of organization, such as academic, research, business, personal use, etc. There is rapid development and enhancements in the field of Internet which provides motivation for further research in the same or connected domains. The current generation has become quite habitual of Internet use, and life without it seems to be impossible; everyday work and even household chores make use of the Internet. It seems technology is gradually becoming human-centric over the years. This evolution of technology will remove any kind of lack of transparency among the people, their businesses, and things. It is not only affecting people or businesses but also the workplaces and homes. Over the coming 10 years, smart machines or smart object technologies will be very much in use. One of these smart technologies is the Internet of Things (IoT).

Fig. 1.1 is a pictorial representation of the IoT. It is a fast-developing network of sensors deployed over a huge variety of things or objects. The primary components of IoT, namely, sensors, communication networks, and actuators, are expected to induce automation in all fields. The primary aim is to develop a smart environment where the collection and exchange of data between all entities are possible. IoT focuses on the improvement of all aspects of human living by simplifying complex physical systems to virtual systems. Gartner hype cycle 2016 (NIH Statement on Sharing Scientific Research) shows that one of the trending topics of the present time is the IoT. The studies done by Cisco estimated that the expected number of Internet-connected objects by 2020 would be around 50 billion, which is only 2.77% of the 1.8 trillion things that are capable of being connected (The Internet of Things and big data: Unlocking the power). It is also predicted that in future, the number of Internet-connected devices will be six times the total population (Business Insider: Chart: By 2020).

Figure 1.1 A pictorial representation of the Internet of Things.

2. Internet of Things

The IoT refers to the intricate internetworking of daily use objects or devices, programmed hardware, software, sensors, and network connections. The internet connections can be wired or wireless, things can be living or nonliving. Sensors are devices that are embedded or attached to the things with the ability to sense or read data and also store the data which can be used for further analysis. Using such devices or things, for example, with the use of a simple smartphone that we carry, our day-to-day activities can be simplified, automated, tracked, or analyzed efficiently. The fundamental elements of IoT, such as sensors, sensor networks, real-time localization, machine learning, etc., have been put to use for many years in the field of information technology (Whitmore, Agarwal, & Xu, 2014).

There is no universal or formal definition of the concept of IoT that has been invariably accepted across the globe until now. However, there are many definitions that are helpful in understanding the meaning of IoT clearly. The term Internet of Things originated in the 1980s and was devised in the year 1999   at MIT when it was introduced by Mr. Kevin Auston, the Executive Director at the Auto-ID Labs at MIT, and that idea spread worldwide from there onward. IoT is also considered as global integration of physical devices (Kortuem, Kawsar, Sundramoorthy, & Fitton, 2010). These physical devices or smart objects can be divided into three categories based on interactivities, functions, awareness, and representations in terms of programming models that have activity-aware, policy-aware, and process-aware objects.

IoT can be defined over three perspectives, namely, the perspective of things or the devices that will be used as the sensing objects, the perspective of Internet or a uniform framework to which all objects are connected, and the perspective of semantics or the communication protocols over which the processing occurs (Yang, Liu, & Liang, 2010). IoT is considered to be a method of universal computing over devices with unique addressing schemes, having the capability to communicate and exchange data among themselves (Agrawal & Vieira, 2013). IoT will enable the objects and people using those objects to be connected in any circumstances, including any place, at any time with anyone or anything, and work on any network or path or service or communication mechanism (Kumar & Patel, 2014). IoT has been defined as an open network of object's capacity to share resources and data, organize, react, and respond to changes or circumstances in the surroundings, automatically (Madakam, Ramaswamy, & Tripathi, 2015) (Fig. 1.2).

In order to understand the actual purpose of IoT and its effect over our lives in the next few years, consider a simple example of a smart home. Let us say, that a person goes off to work and forgets to switch off the lights or cooling system of his house, with the help of smart home infrastructure; he can do the same remotely away from his house. Similarly, when he comes back home from office in the evening, then as he enters his house, the air conditioner in the living room automatically sets the room temperature according to the data received from the temperature sensors placed over his body. Moreover the refrigerator suggests food items like an energy drink or fruits for leveling up energy levels again using the data from sensors placed on his body; the music system sets the music depending on his mood, maybe rock or soft music, the lights adjust themselves to that which comforts the person or his eyes, etc. This is what can happen over a few years from now, with the use of IoT. This proves that IoT will definitely improve our lives to a greater extent.

IoT is a paradigm with multiple visions (Atzori, Iera, & Morabito, 2010). The consortium CASAGRAS has defined it beyond the basic radio frequency identification (RFID)-centered approach. The focus in this consortium is about a global vision to provide human-centric services by enabling objects and computer systems to automatically connect to each other as well as among themselves (Dunkels & Vasseur, 2008).

Figure 1.2 The major components of IoT are people, data, and things.

IoT spreads across a wide band of sectors and can deliver a massive range of functionalities. This will create many employment opportunities as well as profitable gains, in terms of revenue. These sectors include the health industry, environmental industry, consumer-centric industries, etc. Thus, it can be said that IoT will undergo tremendous growth over the coming years providing tremendous opportunities and motivation in research, application, and employment.

3. Architecture of IoT

An architectural model is required to understand a system and know how it functions. There have been various proposals for IoT architecture in the past literature. One of the basic IoT architecture mainly consists of three components: (i) hardware, which is made of sensors and actuators; (ii) middleware for data processing and data transfer; and (iii) presentation for ease, understandability, and portability. The architecture has three layers: the application, network, and perception layers (Kumar & Patel, 2014) (Fig. 1.3).

The International Telecommunications Union or ITU presented an architecture comprising of the sensing, access, network, middleware, and the application layer (Madakam et al., 2015). The OSI model of networking and this model are quite similar. Similar architectural standards have been proposed by the European FP7 research project and IoT Forum (Madakam et al., 2015) (Fig. 1.4). Another architectural model is given in a pyramidal form (Fig. 1.5), having the applications or services on the top, followed by the IoT management services over the Internet, the gateway functions to provide connectivity, and lastly the things or the sensor devices at the base of the pyramid by (IoT architecture—IoT software and hardware architecture).

From the review of various models, the architecture of the IoT can be compiled and generalized in three layers:

• Application tier: It is the presentation layer which provides an interface to users, using intelligent computer technology, management services, authentication and authorization services, etc.

Figure 1.3  The IoT architectural model ( Kumar & Patel, 2014 ).

Figure 1.4  IoT Forum architecture ( Madakam et al., 2015 ).

Figure 1.5  Pyramidal architecture (IoT architecture—IoT software and hardware architecture).

• Network tier: It has the communication protocols providing for Internet connections, network infrastructure, and gateway functions. This layer can also be called as the wireless sensor network (WSN) layer. This layer is the most important of all the three layers as it is the main functioning unit of the architecture, just like the central nervous system of the human body or the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer.

• Physical tier: It has the data collector things or sensors, RFID, raw data, and real-time information which are coordinated and collaborated to be forwarded to the upper processing layer.

Gubbi, Buyya, Marusic, and Palaniswami (2013) have proposed a cloud-centric framework integrating IoT with cloud computing. It has an application layer at the top, cloud computing layer at the middle level, and WSN layer at the bottom.

4. Enabling technologies of IoT

4.1. Radio frequency identification

RFID system is made of tags and readers. Tags or labels are several in number, have an address, and are attached to objects. A tag is a very small microchip having an antenna. Electromagnetic field is used to send or receive data from an object through a tag. The data is stored on the tags in an electronic format, which can be read by a reader only when the two of them are in a specified range. The reader sends a signal to get the data; the antenna on the tag receives and acknowledges the signal by sending the data along. Readers can be one or more. The tags come in three configurations:

• PRAT (Passive Reader Active Tag): The passive reader gets signals from tags working on batteries. The range for transmission is from 1 to 2000 feet.

• ARPT (Active Reader Passive Tag): This tag is mostly used in applications. There is no battery power, and so the tags extract energy from the reader's signal so as to send its own data signal.

• ARAT (Active Reader Active Tag): These tags can work over low as well as high frequencies. Proximity is required for signal transmission from both sides in this configuration.

Hitachi constructed a tag with the dimensions of 0.4∗0.4∗0.15   mm. The RFID makes real-time monitoring possible without the need of the person being actually present at the place of monitoring. Some of the applications where RFID is used are inventory management, tracking of products, payments, goods or baggage tracking, and product lifecycle management (Agrawal & Vieira, 2013). These RFID applications can be integrated with other technologies to develop useful and optimized systems.

The creation of nanomachines capable of electromagnetic communication, interconnection with micro- or macrodevices as well as with the already present communication networks together will enable the Internet of Nano-Things (Akyildiz & Jomet, 2010).

4.2. Electronic product code

An Electronic Product Code (EPC) is a data string that is 96-bit long and is stored on a tag that contains data (Fig. 1.6). These are used for uniquely identifying the tags. The length of the string is coded as follows (Agrawal & Vieira, 2013):

• The starting 8 bits represent the header. This header is used for the identification of the version of the protocol being used.

• The next 28 bits refer to the unique identification of the organization that manages the data of the tag.

• The next 24 bits are used to denote an object class so that the kind of product can be identified.

• The next 36 bits are a unique serial number of the tag.

• The last two bits are set by the organizations that distributed the tag.

Figure 1.6 96-bit EPC representation.

4.3. Wireless sensor network

WSN is a combination of many nodes that have sensors, controllers that are used to sense and monitor the data and the environment interaction. This helps in establishing connectivity between computing devices, individuals, and surroundings. WSN is one of the steering forces behind the IoT (WSN will drive IoT). The processing of the middle network tier of the architecture of IoT is based on WSN. The hardware configuration of a sensor has four parts: power management module, wireless transceiver, sensor, and a microcontroller. The deployment of sensors in a topology, their detection, connection to the network followed by routing, and transmission of information are some of the important tasks in a WSN. The selection of an access network technology such as WLAN (wireless local area network), WMAN (wireless metropolitan area network), WPAN (wireless personal area network), and WWAN (wireless wide area network) depends on the distance and speed of access (Yinbiao et al., 2014).

WSN is an essential element of IoT as it helps in combining heterogeneous data, systems, and applications. The WSNs carry the immense potential for becoming a part of IoT. The requirement and consequences of the complete integration of the Internet and WSN are still under study (Alcaraz, Najera, Lopez, & Roman, 2010).

There are many challenges faced in the integration of WSN and IoT, such as security, quality of service, configuration, data privacy, and data management. Three integration methods have been discussed, namely, independent network which connects WSN and Internet through a direct gateway, hybrid network with dual sensor node, and access point network with multiple sensor nodes (Christin, Reinhardt, Mogre, & Steinmetz, 2009).

The current trend is to use the 6LoWPAN/IPv6 standard in place of the existing ones to establish connectivity in WSN and the Internet, which will facilitate the smart objects to function in IoT applications. IP based, non-IP based, high level, and middleware solutions have been proposed for the challenges faced in several scenarios (Mainetti, Patrono, & Vilei, 2011). Wireless technology is unreliable by nature. Hence, there is a need of low power consuming and reliable WSN network for making wireless sensors easily accessible to the IoT, as there is constant hunger for more and more sensor processed data to store, measure, and analyze those daily activities that are yet to be automated (Yu & Watteyne, 2013).

4.4. Near field communication

Near-field communication (NFC) technology is used to relay and send data in small amounts between two devices when held nearby, which is similar to RFID. They have a wireless link as they are the outcome of an integrated RFID reader over a mobile phone. They utilize low power and have short ranges. It is a type of radio communication that works by either touching the devices or bringing them closer in the proximity of each other. The operating range of the NFC device, approximately 20   cm, depends upon the size of the device's antenna. Due to this, remote location NFC oriented communication is not possible, which makes it safer. For example, a person should be physically present at a shop for payment. NFC acts as a significant technology to connect smart objects in IoT. Mobile NFC is another concept that has the potential to put simple devices to great use. Like the transformation of our mobile phones to payment gateways, at times of payments through credit cards (Agrawal & Vieira, 2013).

4.5. Actuator

An actuator is a specialized device that is responsible for making motions, using some power source or hydraulic fluid or electric current. It transforms energy from one of these sources into kinetic energy. It can create various types of motions, such as oscillatory, rotary, or simple linear motion. It can cover up to 30 feet of short distances. The speed of communication is usually less than 1   Mbps. Actuators are used in industries with manufacturing or mechanical components. Actuators are of three types, namely, the electrical actuator, which uses motors; a hydraulic actuator, which uses hydraulic fluid; and pneumatic actuator, which uses compressed air. Among these, the electrical actuator is widely in use nowadays (Madakam et al., 2015).

4.6. ZigBee

ZigBee is a flexible wireless networking technology that has been developed for short-range applications by the ZigBee Alliance, founded in 2001. The primary goal of ZigBee is to improve the application of WSN. It is highly scalable and reliable, cheap, and has low power consumption. It works in a range of 100   m and a 250   Kbps bandwidth (Arampatzis, Lygeros, & Manesis,