Adulteration Analysis of Some Foods and Drugs

By Bentham Science Publishers

Adulteration refers to the practice of altering food or pharmaceutical content to reduce production costs. Factors affecting this practice include market forces such as easy availability of food adulterants, bargaining power of consumers and large demand

• Language: English
• Publisher: Bentham Science Publishers
• Release date: Aug 7, 2018
• ISBN: 9781681086750

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Introduction (Food, Food Fraud, History of Adulteration)

Alankar Shrivastava¹, *, Ritesh Kumar²

¹ Department of Pharmaceutical Quality Assurance, Lloyd School of Pharmacy, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201310, India

² Department of Pharmaceutics, Institute of Biomedical Education and Research, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh 202146, India

Abstract

Food adulteration is not new or unknown thing for the people and is now one of the global threats for the mankind. The following chapter deals with some basics related to the topic of book like definitions and explanations like food, food fraud history of food adulteration and ends up with some brief description of Codex Alimentarius. This chapter will increase the common understanding of the readers to proceed in the next important chapters.

Keywords: Adulteration, Aesthetic adulteration, Codex Alimentarius, Economic adulteration, Food, Food fraud, Food adulteration, Food safety, Hazardous adulteration, History of adulteration, Safe food.

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* Corresponding author Alankar Shrivastava: Department of Pharmaceutical Quality Assurance, Lloyd School of Pharmacy, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201310, India; Tel: [phone]; E-mail: [e-mail]

Introduction

Someone has rightly said that "We are what we eat." The food that we eat in day today life must be utilized, transformed into different forms, and/or removed by our bodies through excretion process. Food is one of the essential component for life to sustain in this planet, and its access is often the limiting factor in the size of a given population [1].

An important function of the food is to maintain the supply of all macronutrient (e.g. fat, protein, carbohydrate) and micronutrient (e.g. vitamins and minerals) to the body. As this is one of the essential component, the organoleptic properties and safety aspects are also important. Thus food safety is of utmost importance. The food we consume should be:

free from any kind of toxins.

free from any kind of contaminants.

free from any kind of pathogenic microorganisms.

free from any food-poisoning microorganism.

there should be balance of nutrients as per our needs [2].

Food

Food is essential for life and is required not only for sustaining growth but also for combating diseases. All living things are nourished by macro and micro nutrients of food and some foods are known to have health benefits. Foods with health benefits or foods that modulate biological functions of the body and aid prevention and/or relief from pathological states are commonly known as nutraceuticals or functional foods or dietary supplements [3].

There is huge varieties of items and product which can be termed as ‘food’. Food is defined as something that provides pleasure and nutrition when eaten. There are many forms and varieties of food. These may be classified under three types, (1) Fresh and raw products, e.g., meat, fish, fruits and vegetables (fresh) (2) Dairy Products, e.g., yogurt, cheese, butter and milk etc. (3) Cooked or baked foods, e.g., biscuits, prepared meals and bread. Nowadays the demand of ready-prepared food and their components is also increased in addition with the supply of basic food materials [4].

Food Fraud

S. Walter (2013) [5] published the statement of John Spink, associate director of the Anti-Counterfeiting and Product Protection Program at Michigan State University.

"There’s probably no more fraud per capita or per person today than there was in ancient Roman times. There’s just more people now. And it’s multiplied because of globalization and manufacturing."

Economic gain is the reason for the crime known as ‘Food fraud’. This is an act of defrauding consumers or food manufacturers, retailers or importers. Most of the time consumers failed to notice the quality of items they have purchased and thus left undetected. Sometimes adulterated food does not produce any harmful effects and forms another reason for undetected cases. This act defamed the food industry throughout history [6].

The fraud related to food is considered as prime concern related to the economy. Any change in the purity and/or identity of food material/product and its ingredients by altering, replacement or dilution by chemical or physical means results in the adulteration. The types of food frauds were categorized into three categories:

Replacement,

Addition or

Removal

The database related to food fraud and adulteration was firstly developed by USP. The parties interested in some specific products can assess the threats by the information provided in this database [7]. According to this database published in 2012, ninety-five percent of the cases were related to replacement of original material partially or wholly by cheaper substitute less expensive. For example, hazelnut oil is cheaper than olive oil and thus former is used to substitute latter to increase profits. Substitution of Chinese star anise with Japanese star anise (harmful), replacement of high-quality spices with low quality spices are some more examples of such kinds of adulterations. There are reports describing mixing lead chromate/tetraoxide in low quality spices to emanate color of high quality spices is one of the methods of food fraud [8].

The fraud may cost between ten billons and fifteen billion per year, according to the Grocery Manufacturers Association. Approximately this affects the sale of 10% of commercial food products. Both financial and public relations of any company or industry related to food are affected by such kind of food frauds [9].

The expectation of safe and suitable food is a people’s right. The injury caused by unsafe food is of course unpleasant and in the worst case, may be fatal. This may also have impact on economy by damaging tourism and trade which may be precipitated into unemployment and litigation [10].

In the past five decades the capacity of the world for providing food to the people is increased because of utilization of technology. Now the productivity and diversity of food increased with less dependence on the environmental conditions [11]. With the boom in the economy of many countries the exchange of food whether may be by barter or sell is increased, and there have been concern about the quality and safety of the exchanged food [12].

Food Safety

There are many low and middle income countries in the world where regulatory, surveillance, and control systems are unable to address the range of potential hazards [13]. Over the last two decades, food safety rules have increased considerably, both in numbers and in scope. Some of these rules are formed by governments at the international, national and regional level. Others are drawn up by private enterprises or associations of private enterprises [14].

As per WHO’s estimates, each year there are more than 1000 million cases of acute diarrhea in children below five years in developing countries (WHO, 2008). The Chinese report of death of at least six babies and about 0.3 million infants suffered from urinary problem and kidney stones after drinking milk or infant formula because of contamination of melamine in December 2008. There are incidents in India too such as children have fallen sick after eating contaminated midday meals, adulteration of Kuttu flour in festival season. Food borne illness can damage trade and tourism, and will lead to loss of earning, unemployment and litigation [15].

Anklam and Battaglia (2001) in their publication described about few adulterations of last two decades of nineteenth century. Wine was adulterated with diethyglycol, sodium azide and saccharin for sooth taste, prevention of microbial spoilage and to make it sweet respectively. Honey was adulterated with high fructose syrup and bromo-acetic acid added to the beer for microbial growth prevention. Maple syrup and fruit juices were diluted with water and starch hydrolysates. Some other examples are springbok meat labelled as venison, as well as salmon-trout labelled as salmon, and whitefish labelled as perch [16].

One of the recent cases is identification of lead in and monosodium glutamate in the popular instant food, Maggi noodles in India. This only reflects the overall lack of standards in food products in the country. There is a heightened concern in the case of Maggi because it is the favorite food of young children [17].

The world’s population has been increasing rapidly since the beginning of the 20th century, from about 1.6 billion in 1900, 2.5 billion in 1950, 6.1 billion in 2000, to 7.0 billion in 2011, according to estimates by the United Nations Population Fund [18]. The world population could grow to about 16.5 billion by the end of the century [19].

Thus there is no doubt that there will be huge increase in the per capita kcal consumption in the future. The expenditure on food is major part of income in developing countries thus they want to buy maximum in minimum price possible. This attitude of consumers motivates traders or manufacturers for adulteration [20].

Gupta and Panchal (2009) [21] described in their publication about types of adulteration and examples. This is described under (Table 1). This paper also described reasons of the adulteration; (a) Availability of many products (b) Psychology of the consumer (c) Too much bargain (d) Wrong buying practice of consumer (e) Availability of adulterants. In addition to this, practice of adulteration also increased if demand exceeds the supply of any product. Various reasons of adulteration are presented under (Fig. 1).

Table 1 Different types of adulteration and examples [21].

Fig. (1))

Various reasons of adulteration.

Food Adulteration

Food adulteration and fraud and attempts at their control have a long history [22].

Food adulteration provisions of the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act govern three types of adulteration: economic, aesthetic, and hazardous.

Economic adulteration is the oldest form of consumer fraud. Watered milk, for example, is not a health problem, but it is an economic problem and is prohibited by law. Aesthetic adulteration involves more analysis. Under the FD&C Act, food that contains any filthy or decomposed matter, or that is ‘otherwise unfit for food’, is adulterated and therefore illegal. This is true, even if the food is absolutely sterile and presents no health problem. These aesthetic provisions in the law protect the consumer’s sensitivity and health.

Any food held under unsanitary conditions that may present a danger to health is adulterated and illegal. The FDA has taken most of its enforcement action under the ‘unsanitary conditions’ provision of the food law, the backbone of food and drug protection in the United States [23].

The popular idea of adulteration is that it always consists of the addition of cheaper ingredients, often harmful, to foods, beverages, drugs, confectionery, and other commodities. Very likely this was the original form of adulteration and it is often practiced, but it comes very far from comprising the whole meaning of the word [24]. Food authenticity has become a focal point attracting the attention of producers, consumers, and policy makers. A range of analytical methods to detect fraud has to be developed, modified, and reappraised on a continuous basis to be a step ahead of those pursuing these illegal activities [25].

History of Adulteration

In ancient Rome and Greece, wine was often mixed with honey, herbs, spices and even saltwater, chalk or lead—which served as both a sweetener and a preservative. After this, adulteration with food grows gradually for economic gain. Spices were very valuable during middle ages and thus targeted for adulteration by mixing with ground nutshells, pits, seeds, juniper berries, stones or dust [26].

Mesopotamian, Hebrew, Egyptian, Greek and Roman authorities had provisions on good practices, inspectors for the integrity of precious commodities or goods (Grains, wines etc.), and penalties and punishments for those offended the public interest and often jeopardized the health of citizens [27].

Many descriptions are available showing the attempts to prevent food frauds by various rules and regulations in our ancient history. For example, India has regulations for prohibiting adulteration of grains and edible fats in more than 2000 years back. Mosaic and Egyptian laws, about 2500 years ago had provisions to prevent the contamination of meat [28].

In the middle ages food quality was mostly related to weight and quality of food stuffs. Adulterations occurred in the food stuffs which are highly valuable or the part of the food of major population or which are traded in large quantities. Since during this time period spices were the one of the valuable component that has be traded across the borders of continents even, are prone for adulteration. Governments of that time also were sensitive to prevent their population for any kind of such food fraud. For example, is passing of a law; Assisa Panis et Cervisae (Assize of Bread and Ale) in England in year 1266 for the regulation of weight and price of bread and ale in relation with corn. Some documents also show the appointment of food inspectors to stop adulteration of food stuffs that had a potential of endangering public health [29].

Penalties in olden times were quite harsh. In Salerno, Italy in the 10th century, the penalty for adulteration of a drug included whoever shall have or sell any noxious drug or poison not useful or necessary to his art, let him be hanged [30].

In Nuremberg in the fifteenth century, an adulterator of saffron was burnt over his own produce; others were buried alive or their eyes were gouged out. Other forms of punishment comprised expulsion, whipping, cutting off ears, and drowning. In some cases, offenders were forced to consume their adulterated food until they died. Later, French King Louis XIV, the Sun King, imposed capital punishment for the adulteration of wine by the addition of pokeweed (Phytolacca americana L.) [31].

Between the 13th and 16th centuries, bread, wine, beer, spices, and valuable natural coloring materials were often adulterated. In England in 1319, a meat market overseer succeeded in putting a butcher in the pillory for selling unsound beef [32].

Frederick Accum was the first to raise the alarm about food adulteration. Accum was a German chemist who had come to London in 1793 and who quickly established himself as a chemical analyst, consultant and teacher of chemistry [33].

Accum in 1820, published a book title A Treatise on Adulterations of Food and Culinary Poisons. Each section details the methods of adulteration and how they may be detected. The largest section is devoted to the adulteration of beer. The first edition of a thousand copies was sold out within a month of publication and the second edition appeared later in the same year [34].

Harvey W. Wiley, known as the Father of the Pure Food and Drugs Act of United States [35], was chief chemist of the Agriculture Department's Bureau of Chemistry. He investigated the safety of some preservatives used in food. Wiley recruited volunteers, which the press soon dubbed the Poison Squad. These volunteers ate foods containing measured amounts of borax, salicylic acid, formaldehyde, and other chemical preservatives [ 36].

The initial five preservatives studied were borax, salicylic acid, sulfuric acid, sodium benzoate, and formaldehyde. Dosages ranged from one-half gram daily to four grams by the end of the five-year study. Wiley stopped the experiments only when the chemicals made several of the diners so sick that they couldn't function--nausea, vomiting, stomachaches, and the inability to perform work of any kind. This is because of his study Congress, in 1906, passed both the Meat Inspection Act and the original Food and Drugs Act, prohibiting the manufacture and interstate shipment of adulterated and misbranded foods and drugs [37].

During the Industrial Revolution at the turn of the 19th Century, people moved towards towns and cities for work and became reliant on food retailers as a result. Industrial managers became increasingly infuriated by high levels of absenteeism, a major cause of which was the consumption of adulterated foods