The Environment and Aggregate-Related Archaeology

By Tony Brown

This volume provides a synthetic review of the background and archaeology that has emerged through archaeological interventions associated with the quarrying of sand, gravel, and rock for aggregates. The book covers all periods from the Lower Palaeolithic to Medieval, and is organized on a regional basis. The review, which also contains as yet unpublished data, shows how the variety and preservation of archaeology can greatly expand our understanding of the relationships of humans to their changing environments.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Oxbow Books
• Release date: Jan 15, 2009
• ISBN: 9781782972808

Tony Brown

Tony Brown hosts Tony Brown's Journal, the longest-running series on PBS. He is also the host of the radio call-in show Tony Brown on WLS-ABC Chicago, and is the author of Black Lies, White Lies and Empower the People. A sought-after speaker, he lives in New York City.

Book preview

Plate 1 This volume is dedicated to the memory of Christopher Salisbury (12 October 1929 to 27 November 2004) and in recognition of his major contributions to aggregate-related archaeology.

The Environment and Aggregate-Related Archaeology

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CONTENTS

"There are known knowns,

known un-knowns,

un-known knowns

and even

unknown unknowns"

D. Rumbsveld (2003)

Executive Summary

This book seeks to present the achievements of aggregate-related archaeology in England both before and after PPG16. In addition it seeks to provide a forward look at aggregate-related archaeology using both policies and data provided by the UK Government and Unitary Authorities, largely through County-based Local Mineral Plans (MLPs). The forward look aspect is augmented in Chapters 2 and 12, which discuss regional variation and environment and aggregate-related archaeology. The book starts by presenting the mineral planning context set originally in 1994 but subsequently revised in 2002. A brief history of aggregate related archaeology is then presented, which shows how it has been a main provider of important areas of archaeological research especially contributing to our understanding of the Palaeolithic and more recently lowland prehistoric landscapes. Aggregate quarries have also provided some of our most important individual archaeological sites and unique artefacts many of which have caught the public’s imagination. The geological and geomorphological context of aggregate related archaeology is then discussed with the aim of increasing general understanding of the environmental context and filters on sites, features and artefacts. This understanding has important consequences for future evaluations, assessments and the development of archaeoprospecting techniques.

The aggregate archaeology of each English Heritage region is then reviewed by county relying predominantly on published sources. This also includes a listing of interventions between 1991 and 2001 that have been recorded by the Archaeological Investigations Project (AIP). Data from the MLPs is then used to provide a list for each county of sites and areas that are most likely to be worked in the future – the so-called ‘preferred areas or sites’. These areas and sites are mapped and provide a basis for applying regional policy in relation to the aggregate archaeological resource. Finally after an overview of the achievements of aggregate related archaeology at the generic level recommendation are made so as to mobilize and ensure the maximum effectiveness of future funding from the aggregates industry both directly and indirectly. This includes the arguments in favour of establishment of semi-formalized area or valley projects or committees, increased attention to ‘hard aggregate’ related archaeology and the establishment of a database and datacentre to allow full accountability and the maximization of value for money from the aggregate industry and other sources. It is concluded that the quarrying of aggregates, particularly ‘soft aggregates’, has made a major and unique contribution to our understanding of the past and that given the pressures of the economy and regulation by necessity the industry will go on doing so. More specifically the sterilization of aggregate resources by preservation in situ, whilst desirable, is unlikely to be acceptable in most cases in the face of such pressures.

Acknowledgements

This book has been compiled with the assistance of all the County and Unitary Authority Environment Departments to whom thanks are given. The assistance of Bronwen Russell and of the AIP has been invaluable. I must thank Sue Rouillard for drawing the county maps and Helen Jones and others for scanning and other assistance. Jen Heathcote and several other employees of English Heritage are thanked for discussion and advice and many geoarchaeological and archaeological colleagues for their help and information. J Thatcher was invaluable in the acquisition of the MLPs. Particular thanks must be paid to Duncan Pollock and the whole of the Quarry Products Association for their invaluable assistance in the writing of this monograph. Finally the views expressed in this book are entirely personal and do not reflect any institutional position.

Figures and Tables

1 INTRODUCTION AND THE NATIONAL CONTEXT

1.1 Introduction

The archaeology revealed through the worldwide quarrying of sand, gravel, and rock for aggregates has the potential to both destroy and illuminate unique aspects of past worlds. It also has the potential to contribute to, or even answer some of the big questions or issues in archaeology in the twenty-first century. These include questions concerning the evolution, migration, and dispersal of ancestral and modern humans, since in many parts of the globe both life and transport would have followed the coast and rivers. Many aspects of past human life remain poorly understood due to the poor preservation of organic materials but waterlogged aggregates can provide rare glimpses of life from the development of bridges to shoes. A major theme re-emerging in archaeology is human-environment relations particularly in the face of immanent climate change. Here aggregates provide the potential to test hypotheses of adaptation, incorporation, acculturation or negation. Furthermore it is now accepted that artefacts with no environmental context are incomplete. Aggregate-related archaeology is at the forefront of archaeology in the UK and is vital if we are to record our past, which is almost inevitably lost through economic development.

The reports which form the basis of this book were prepared as part of the Aggregate Levy Sustainability Fund (ALSF) Programme undertaken by English Heritage (EH) in 2002 – March 2004. It was commissioned under Project PNUM 3350 (Main) The Achievements, Status and Future of Aggregate Extraction Related Archaeology in England. This volume is restricted to land-won aggregates. The differentiation of land from sea-won aggregates is based upon a criteria that relate to planning jurisdiction as sea-won aggregate sources are those from further out to sea than the seasonal limit of beach profile change, in any case below 18m at low tide and outside the planning remit of County and other Local Authorities. This criterion is used here and it should be noted that this includes as land-won aggregates beach and inter-tidal aggregate sources. The planning legislation under which land-won aggregate sources are identified, located, and permitted subject to planning constraints is discussed later in this chapter.

The analysis presented in this volume is organized using the English Heritage Regions, which are based upon the English Regional Planning Districts as of April 2001. However, the principal source for reviewing present and future aggregate-related archaeology are the County Mineral Local Plans (MLPs), which are listed in Appendix 1. Many of these were drawn up prior to local government reorganization in the late 1990s and so in some cases relate to redundant planning areas. However, they remain the legal framework for aggregate extraction policies and are used here. The difficulty of using these documents, and their limitations in relation to aggregate-related archaeology, forms one of the themes of the volume.

After considering the national planning context of aggregate-related archaeology the volume discusses both the history of aggregate-related archaeology and its geological and geomorphological basis. Then for each English Heritage Region (English Government Planning Regions) there is a brief discussion of pre-1990 sites, work since 1990 (1991-2001) and the future aggregate proposals in that county as specified in the MLP. The list of interventions has been taken from the Archaeological Investigations Project (AIP) based at Bournemouth University. This is discussed further in the chapter on regional variation In Aggregate-Related Archaeology (Brown 2004).

Where possible the contribution of aggregate-related archaeology to the Regional Research Frameworks, as promoted by English Heritage, is discussed. Lastly the volume covers the assessment of the overall achievements of aggregate-related archaeology, and likely future directions for research in this area. Finally some recommendations are made which it is hoped would maximize the value of aggregate funded archaeology and facilitate auditing and transparency.

This volume is based on Counties and the English Heritage Regions allowing the collection of data at a county level from adopted and published MLPs. The distribution of aggregate deposits, either soft or hard clearly, does not reflect these boundaries. However, given the size of the EH regions major suites of soft aggregates which are largely catchment-related in their distribution can be assigned to the regions as can many hard-aggregate deposits. There are, however, serious problems in some areas which prevent statistics being collected and more seriously the integration of archaeological results and therefore a failure to achieve their full potential. Some of the recommendations address these problems.

1.2 Methodology

This section describes the methodology employed in the production of this volume. The main body of the book originates from a review of aggregate-related archaeology before and after the introduction of PPG16 (1991). The pre-1991 review is based upon the author’s personal knowledge, and literature searches of earlier reviews – such as Fulford and Nichols (1992) and Benson and Miles (1974). An attempt has been made to try and even out coverage geographically by concentrating searches, particularly of the grey literature, in areas with less published data. However, a full review of all the grey literature was not possible, and so variation in the degree of coverage will still exist.

The post 1991 review was based upon both the above methodology and the Archaeological Investigations Project (AIP) gazette data (Appendix 1). This data was researched by Bronwen Russell, providing a list of all mineral extraction related interventions. This list was then manually sorted to extract only those related to aggregates. In a few cases the mineral type was not recorded, and so those sites were not included in the final listing. Where clusters of sites were discovered that the author felt had a high potential which had yet to be realised, these areas were labelled as potential integrated gravel-related archaeological areas (IGRAAs). The additional data for each area, such as geology, geomorphology, and Quaternary history, is all derived from published sources or fieldwork by the author. The section on regional variation (Section 1.6.4) was based upon a statistical analysis of the AIP data. The chapter (Chapter 12) on the environment and aggregate-related archaeology was stimulated by a seminar held at the Museum of London in 2002, and the author is indebted to all the participants. It is also based upon published data and official government information. Two other seminars greatly informed the writing of this book, one at the Museum of London on Marine-terrestrial linkages and the other at the British Geological Survey, Keyworth on new techniques in aggregate-related archaeology. The author is indebted to all the participants at both seminars.

Figure 1.1 The number of well-documented pre-PPG16 aggregate related sites by region (see text for definition).

1.3 The English Context

Aggregate funded archaeology is a direct consequence of, and dependent upon, the trends in aggregate quarrying and the policies at National and local level which affects this development. The development and protection of mineral resources is set out in each county or unitary authority in Mineral Local Plans (MLPs). These plans along with District and other subject plans and the County Structure Plan determine all aspects of local planning development when approved by the Secretary of State. The principal requirement is that MLPs are in general conformity with County Structure Plans and Government guidance and policies. The MLP is a statutory Local Plan prepared under Section 36 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1990. They should set out all the counties policies in relation to mineral, including aggregate, extraction with a reasoned justification and a proposals map. The exact specification of an MLP is set out in Planning Policy Guidance Note 12 (PPG 12). MLPs generally cover about a ten year period, however, they vary in both duration and commencement date and this provides some problems of comparability.

In 2002 the UK Government amended the National and Regional Guidelines for the period 2001-2016 and the new guidelines replaced those in Annex A of MPG Note 6 Guidelines for Aggregate Provision in England as published in 1994. The effect was to lower the estimated guideline by about 24% to 3.4 billion tones or about 212.5 Mt per year. In practice monitoring by the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM) had indicated that production had been well below the 1994 guidelines. The new guidelines have been apportioned to the regions and will form the basis of Local Authority planning guidance with support from Regional Aggregate Working Parties (RAWPs). This has meant that all Local Authorities must now, or have recently had to revise, amend or update their MLPs. Unfortunately at the time of writing only one Local Authority has yet produced its revised MLP (Nottinghamshire) and so it was not possible to use the revised mineral planning proposals. There is, however, an argument that the existing MLPs are a better indication of the medium to long-term spatial distribution of aggregate working as should the guidance be revised again the areas of search and preferred areas identified following the 1994 guidance would almost certainly be resurrected.

The policies set out in an MLP, to be amended as above, are based on Government Planning Guidance and for aggregates these relate to ensuring a continuity of supply whilst maintaining reserves and safeguarding environmental protection and heritage or archaeology. Each county is required to meet targets set out regionally by Regional Aggregate Working Parties (RAWPs) under Government guidance as set out in MPG 6 (Guidance for Aggregate Provision in England) as revised in 1994 and 2002. This guidance whilst establishing the machinery and demand forecasts upon which production figures are based also stresses the importance of constraints such as protecting high grade agricultural land (unless it can be restored to that grade), landscape, ecological and geological designations. Under the guidance the RAWPs establish county production figures and how much is to come from land-won, marine, imported and secondary aggregate sources. Counties are also required to plan for at least 10 years further supply. Under the MPG 6 this requirement is 7 years and is referred to as the ‘Landbank’. It is this requirement that forced counties through their MLPs to identify ‘Preferred Sites’, ‘Preferred Areas’ and ‘Areas of Search’. This means that in such areas there will not be a planning presumption against extraction subject to all other constraints being met. This in turn implies that in areas outside these identified areas there is a planning presumption against extraction irrespective of other constraints. However, the exact policies underpinning and defining the preferred sites, preferred areas and areas of search vary significantly from county to county as does the information on areas provided by the MLPs. The comparison of an area with all the constraints is known as sieve analysis. The constraints are set out in general terms in MPG 6 but vary for county to county. In general terms they include the following items:

Figure 1.2 The trend of interventions 1991-2001 (data from AIP).

Archaeology is generally included within the heritage constraint, although the degree to which it is mentioned and incorporated varies considerably.

In effect the planning procedure requires that all applications for new workings or the extension of quarries should be seen by the designated planning officer for the Historic Environment, or in most cases the County Archaeologist. If it is considered likely that the area concerned is likely to contain features or articles of archaeological interest then as recommended in PPG16 local authorities have the right to require access for and funding towards assessment, evaluation and if appropriate excavation as a planning condition.

These policies and mechanisms provide the background to our aggregate archaeology in terms of both its funding and the future areas of likely assessment, evaluation and excavation. As the proposals maps show it is highly skewed in terms of both the number of sites and land-take to soft aggregate sites in the larger river valleys and to a lesser extent the coastal zone. This book uses the proposals maps as the record of both ongoing and likely future spatial extent of aggregate-related archaeology.

1.4 The British Isles Context

There is no cohesive and overarching archaeological agenda within British Archaeology, but a number of commentators have provided thoughts on where the subject is going. Bradley, for example, suggested in 1993 that archaeology was in danger of polarizing between the scientific and theoretical, and Gosden (2004) warns that the current interest in combining the material and the social will ultimately be seen as a fad, as the split still remains within academic departments. He argues that archaeologists of all forms have a common cause in attempting to describe and categorize material worlds in terms of their impacts on social relations, and that archaeology is returning to artefacts for its interpretations (Gosden, 2004). Shanks (2004), in comparison, suggests that globalism is affecting archaeology; with material archaeological roots giving a sense of local identity yet with sites remaining joined in a global system of values and accreditation.

Figure 1.3 The number of interventions 1991-2001 by region (data from AIP).

Henson (2001), however, states that the future of archaeology lies with the public, a sentiment that was echoed at the 2003 Dalrymple Conference in Glasgow. This conference, which comprised of archaeologists involved not only in public sector and university archaeological research, but also the medium of television archaeology, concluded that the future of archaeology lies with the political will of the people to force government to preserve and exploit our architectural heritage effectively (www.glasarchsoc.streamlinetrial.co.uk/pages/tvarch.asp). Further, the first report of the All-Party Parliamentary Archaeology Group (APPAG) on the current state of the subject in the UK stated that the present framework for PPG16 investigations contained only a poor provision for public access and involvement, and no provision for synthesis and nontechnical dissemination (APPAG, 2003).

A further, more general, guide to the direction in which British academic archaeological research is heading can be gained from the types of projects that received funding from the British Academy. Between 2003 and March 2005 the British Academy funding body gave out a total of 152 grants for small and large research projects. From these 24 per cent went to projects based in Britain and Ireland, with over 80 per cent of the large grants awarded going to international research. Out of the awards given to UK projects, 76 per cent focused on prehistoric period, with 20 per cent of that money going to Palaeolithic or Mesolithic projects

Government policies in relation to aggregates and archaeology exist in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. In many cases these policies draw from the regulations laid out in England, as is particularly the case in Scotland. In 1993 the Confederation of British Industry Archaeological Investigations Code of Practice for Mineral Operators in Scotland was developed in order to extend best practices from England to Scotland (Confederation for British Industry, 1993). In light of this the Scottish Office National Planning Policy Guide (NPPG) 4 (Land for Mineral Working) developed in 1994 highlights the attempt to obtain sustainable development balanced between working the resource and the natural and built heritage – which defines archaeological sites and landscapes as specified in Historic Scotland’s Annual Report 1992-3 (www.scotland.gov.uk/library/nppg/nppg4bcon.htm).

Further policies NPPG5, concerning Archaeology and Planning, and the Planning Advice Note PAN 42 [Archaeology - the Planning Process and Scheduled Monument Procedures], both written in 1994, aimed to encourage developer funded archaeology, and enable a better response to threatened archaeological remains from Historic Scotland. NPPG5 sub-section 16 states that authorities should therefore base policies and development control activities on up-to-date knowledge of the various categories of archaeological remains in their area, following advice from the Regional Archaeologist (www.scotland.gov.uk/about/Planning/nppg_5_archaeologypl.aspx).

Figure 1.4 The number of interventions recording no pre-post-medieval archaeology or ‘no archaeology’.

The Welsh Office (superseded in 1999 by the National Assembly for Wales) developed legislation in Wales, PPG16 (Wales) for Archaeology and Planning which follows the same policies its English counterpart. This exists alongside the ‘Technical Advice Note’ (Wales) TAN (W) 6: Archaeology and Planning. A number of Regional Working Parties have also been setup across Wales, in order to address issues occurring between the councils, government, industry, and interested bodies such as National Parks. For example, in 2003 it was clear that there was dissatisfaction that Wales was receiving a disproportionately low share of ALSF money – only 5% of the fund – as reported in the minutes of the South Wales Regional Aggregates Working Party (10th March 2004; www.wales.gov.uk/subiplanning/content/minerals/aggregates/regional-working-party/south-wales/min-100304-e.htm). Although this has been brought to the attention of the Treasury the shortfall is still an issue within Wales, despite the country producing 11 to 12% of the aggregates produced in Britain each year (pers. comm. David Eccles ALSF Welsh Assembly).

In Northern Ireland the relevant policies are contained in Planning Policy Statement (PPS) 6 – Planning, Archaeology and Built Heritage – passed in 1999 (www.planningni.gov.uk/AreaPlans_Policy/PPS/pps6/pps6.pdf). Alongside this legislation, Areas of Constraint on Mineral Developments (ACMDs) have been created to safeguard vulnerable environmental features within the regions of Northern Ireland. These designations take into account nature conservation and earth science interest, the archaeological and built heritage, landscape quality and character, and visual prominence (for example Dungannon Area Plan 2010, 2005).

The Republic of Ireland Planning Act was passed in 2000, and following this dialogue between the aggregate industry, archaeologists, and Local Authorities is beginning to take place. In 2002 the Department of Environment, Heritage and Local Government agreed an Archaeological Code of Practice with the Irish Concrete Federation (ICF) to be followed during planning applications. The purpose of this Code is to provide a consistent framework within existing legislation and to enable ICF members to maintain the supply of development materials whilst having appropriate regard for archaeology. It also provided for the appointment of a Project Archaeologist, to manage archaeology within the industry. This is the first such agreement to employ an archaeologist to manage archaeology within industry in Ireland (pers. comm. Charles Mount ICF).

1.5 The International Context

It is clear that other European countries do not have as clearly defined polices for archaeology and aggregate extraction as exist in the UK. Attempts are being made by the Europae Archaeologiae Consilium (EAC), to act as a coordinated voice to influence the development of policies by European agencies (Olivier, 2001). EAC was approved in 1999 and is a non-profit making organisation that serves the needs of national archaeological heritage through an exchange of information between members (Olivier, 2001).

Other countries which have some form of planning provision for aggregate-related archaeology include Australia, Canada, and to a lesser extent USA.

Australian environmental legislation is determined at a State level. Policies concerning the extraction of sand and gravel on a commercial scale are produced at a state level in order to manage the specific environmental qualities within each region of Australia. One of the primary objectives of these State guidelines is restriction of environmental change through monitoring, and to stimulate the use of appropriate contingency measures if initial planning has been inadequate or poor operations have caused problems (Cummings, 1999). For the State of Victoria, for example, environmental guidelines state an aim to protect significant flora and fauna communities or habitats, evaluate significant flora and fauna attributes of the proposed site and its surrounds (including wetlands), and check the status of proposed site in terms of known sites of biological, geological, or heritage significance (Cummings, 1999). These guidelines correspond with policies to protect catchments and water resources. Archaeology is also protected through the Aboriginal Cultural Heritage Act of 2003 (www.nrm.qld.gov.au/cultural_heritage/pdf/duty_of_care_guidelines.pdf), which replaced the Cultural Resources Act of 1987, which is regulated through the self-governing Territories.

Figure 1.5 Revised (2002) guidelines for primary aggregate needs in England.

Legislation in Canada is also controlled at state level, but has stronger guidelines than its American counterpart. As part of the 1996 British Columbia Mines Act [Chapter 293 10 (1)], before any work is undertaken in or around any extraction site, a permit must be filed with a plan outlining the details of the proposed work and a program for the conservation of cultural heritage resources and for the protection and reclamation of the land, watercourses and cultural heritage resources affected by the mine (www.qp.gov.bc.ca/statreg/stat/M/96293_01.htm). The Mineral Tenure Act of 1996 [Chapter 292 17(1)] also states that despite any other act, the Minister has the right to restrict surface rights or access to minerals if it is considered that the surface area is, or contains, cultural heritage resources (www.qp.gov.bc.ca/statreg/stat/M/96292_01.htm).

Like Australia, in the USA the protection of indigenous archaeology is regulated under Federal Law, but there is no direct policy that governs the extraction of sand and gravel in relation to planning and archaeological material. The US Department of Interiors (2003) has released a strategic plan for fiscal years 2003-2008, which addresses the need protect and manage the Nation’s natural resources and cultural heritage; provide scientific and other information about those resources; and honours its trust responsibilities or special commitments to American Indians, Alaska Natives and affiliated Island Communities (www.doi.gov/ppp/strat_plan_fy2003_2008.pdf).

1.6 Regional Variation in Aggregate-Related and Valley Archaeology

The aim of this section is to evaluate the regional variation in aggregate related archaeology in the light of influencing factors. These include:

The figures have been collected by county but the analysis is also by region.

Figure 1.6 Regional numbers of preferred sites, preferred areas and areas of search identified under the 1994 mineral planning guidance.

1.6.1 The Geological and Historical Legacy

The distribution of aggregate sources is not evenly spread across England. Different types have distinct distribution patterns related