Caesar’s Gallic Campaigns

By Sidney G. Brady and Robert Hammond Murray

Caesar was a surpassing military genius. Among students and professionals of the martial art prime interest in the great Roman’s career centers, upon his campaigns, leading with his immemorial conquest of Gaul. Of this, in his Commentaries, “admirable for their directness and luminous simplicity of statement,” he was his own inimitable historian. The stirring record of his nine years’ struggle against the warlike tribes that resisted Roman conquest in what is now France is the most famous military book in the world.

Equally capable, ambitious and persevering in the development of all his inherent potentialities, Caesar also excelled in statesmanship, in politics, in oratory, in letters and in social gifts. His high and enduring achievements in civil life successfully brought into play the same constructive qualities of genius, character, energy and judgment which enabled him to dominate battlefields.

For centuries famous captains have made Caesar their mentor, and followed profitably his strategical and tactical expositions. Innumerable generations have not found their interest lagging in absorbing the stirring accounts of Caesarian exploits in Gaul.

“The most stimulating addition to the long bibliography of Caesariana published in recent years; it will be welcomed by student and teacher alike…exciting reading.”—The Classical Weekly

• Language: English
• Publisher: Muriwai Books
• Release date: Dec 5, 2018
• ISBN: 9781789125733

Sidney G. Brady

SIDNEY GUTHRIE BRADY (May 21, 1890 - March 17, 1966) was a U.S. Lieutenant-Colonel. He was born on May 21, 1890 in Crete, Nebraska, the son of Clarissa Sidney “Sidney” Guthrie Brady (1862-1890), who died soon after his birth, and Cyrus Townsend Brady (1861-1920), a graduate of the U.S. Naval Academy, ordained Episcopal minister, and prolific author. Lt.-Col. Brady passed away on March 17, 1966, aged 75, and was interred at Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia.

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Text originally published in 1947 under the same title.

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CAESAR’S GALLIC CAMPAIGNS

BY

S. G. BRADY, Lt. Col., U.S.A., Retired

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS 3

MAP OF WESTERN GAUL 5

MAP OF EASTERN GAUL 8

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 12

CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE OF CAESAR’S LIFE 14

FOREWORD by Robert Hammond Murray 16

CHAPTER I—THE HELVETIAN INVASION 25

Book I. 58 B.C. 25

CHAPTER II—THE BATTLE OF BIBRACTE 30

Book I. 58 B.C. 30

CHAPTER III—CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE GERMANS 36

Book I. 58 B.C. 36

CHAPTER IV—FIRST CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE BELGAE 44

Book II. 57 B.C. 44

CHAPTER V—BATTLE WITH THE NERVII ON THE SABIS RIVER 49

Book II. 57 B.C. 49

CHAPTER VI—CONQUEST OF THE ATUATUCI. THE FIRST TWO YEARS 57

Book II. 57 B.C. 57

CHAPTER VII—THE WORK OF CAESAR’S SUBORDINATES 61

Books II, III. 57-56 B.C. 61

CHAPTER VIII—CAMPAIGNS AGAINST THE MARITIME TRIBES 64

Book III. 56 B.C. 64

CHAPTER IX—MORE TROUBLE WITH GERMANS 70

Book IV. 55 B. C. 70

CHAPTER X—FIRST AND SECOND EXPEDITIONS TO INVADE BRITAIN 76

Books IV and V. 55-54 B.C. 76

CHAPTER XI—AMBIORIX RIDES THE CREST 81

Book V. Winter 54-53 B.C. 81

CHAPTER XII—AMBIORIX COMMENCES TO WONDER 85

Book V. 54 B.C. 85

CHAPTER XIII—REVOLT BY THE SENONES AND TREVERI 88

Book V. 53 B.C.. 88

CHAPTER XIV—AMBIORIX CEASES TO WONDER 93

Book VI. 53 B.C. 93

CHAPTER XV—AMBIORIX CEASES 97

Book VI. 53 B.C. 97

CHAPTER XVI—UPRISING UNDER VERCINGETORIX 102

Book VII. Winter 53-52 B.C. 102

CHAPTER XVII—THE SIEGE OF AVARICUM 110

Book VII. Late Winter and Early Spring. 52 B.C. 110

CHAPTER XVIII—OPERATIONS AGAINST THE REVOLT OF THE AEDUI 118

Book VII. 52 B.C. 118

CHAPTER XIX—CAESAR’S ENGAGEMENT AND ATTACK AT GERGOVIA 123

Book VII. Spring 52 B.C. 123

CHAPTER XX—SPREAD OF THE GENERAL REBELLION OF THE GAULS 130

Book VII. 52 B.C. 130

CHAPTER XXI—THE FINAL STAND AT THE SIEGE OF ALESIA 135

Book VII. 52 B.C. 135

CHAPTER XXII—THE LAST CONFLICT WITH AN ARMY OF GAULS 144

Book VII. Fall 52 B.C. 144

CHAPTER XXIII—THE END OF THE STRUGGLE 150

Book VIII. 51 B.C. 150

APPENDICES—THE MILITARY AFFAIRS OF ANCIENT ROME 156

APPENDIX A—THE ROMAN ARMY 156

APPENDIX B—ROMAN ART OF WAR IN CAESAR’S TIME 177

REQUEST FROM THE PUBLISHER 196

MAP OF WESTERN GAUL

MAP OF EASTERN GAUL

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Exclusive of the great Julius himself, there are seven persons without whose help this book could not have been written.

They are: T. R. Holmes, T. A. Dodge, W. W. Fowler, J. A. Froude, H. J. Edwards, E. I. Burdock and Lelia Brady.

Of these, three are American and four are English; four are professors, two are soldiers and one is a young girl, my daughter.

Permission to make quotations from various writers is gratefully acknowledged, and thanks are due the following firms therefore:

Random House, Inc., New York: Hail Caesar, by Fletcher Pratt; 1936.

G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York: Julius Caesar, by W. Warde Fowler, 1939; and The Life of Caesar, by G. Ferrero, 1933.

Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York: Caesar, A Sketch, by J. A. Froude, 1912.

Longmans, Green and Co., New York: Warfare by Land and Sea, by E. S. McCartney, 1923.

D. C. Heath and Co., Boston: Caesar’s Gallic War, by Towle and Jenks, 1903

Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston: Great Captains—Caesar, by T. A. Dodge, 1892.

Allyn and Bacon, Boston: Caesar’s Commentaries, by F. W. Kelsey, 1918; and Caesar’s Gallic War, by C. E. Bennett, 1920.

American Book Co., New York: Second Year Latin, by P. O. Place, 1923; Caesar’s Gallic War, Harkness and Forbes, 1901; Caesar’s Gallic and Civil War, by M. W. Mather, 1905.

Ginn and Company, Boston: Caesar in Gaul, by D’Ooge and Eastman; Caesar’s Gallic War, by Allen and Greenough, 1898.

Scott, Foresman and Co., Chicago: Caesar’s Gallic War, by A. T. Walker, 1907.

D. Appleton-Century Co., New York: Caesar’s Gallic War, J. H. Westcott; Caesar’s First Campaign, Jenner and Wilson, 1913.

The Macmillan Co., New York: Second Latin Book, Ullman and Henry, page 228, 1925.

Thanks are due the Clarendon Press, Oxford, England, for permission to use quotations from the following pages of T. R. Holmes’ Caesar’s Conquest of Gaul, 1911: pages 56, 57, 66, 74, 82, 98, 99, 113, 122, 133, 135, 157, 167 and 169.

S.G.B.

CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE OF CAESAR’S LIFE

B.C.—Caesar’s Age

102—Born July 12th (the month itself later named after him) of one of the oldest patrician families, the gens Julia, son of C. Julius Caesar and Aurelia. Marius, general and seven times a consul, defeats the Teutoni.

87—15—Assumes toga virilis. Appointed by C Marius, his uncle, as priest of Jupiter or flamen dialis. Marius dies, and Cinna becomes dictator.

83—19—Becomes allied with the popular party by marriage with Cornelia, daughter of Lucius Cinna.

82—20—Opposes Sulla, perpetual dictator and leader of the patrician or aristocratic party. Is proscribed and pardoned. Leaves Rome for his first journey to Asia Minor and the East. Serves in the army.

80—22—Wins the Civic Crown of oak leaves for saving a Roman citizen’s life at Mytilene.

78—24—Returns to Rome on death of Sulla and begins public career.

77—25—Impeaches and prosecutes Cn. Dolabella, a rapacious provincial governor, for extortion.

76—26—Is captured by pirates. Ransomed and sails to Rhodes to study rhetoric and oratory under Molo.

74—28—Returns to Rome and is elected military tribune and pontifex, a member of the highest priestly order. Raises a company of volunteers at Rhodes, and holds Caria against Mithridates.

70—32—Aids in abrogation of Sullan constitution. Consulship of Pompey and Crassus.

68—34—Quaestor, or treasurer. Sent to Spain to settle finances of the country.

67—35—Marries Pompeia, Pompey’s cousin.

66—36—Supports the Gabinian and the Manilian laws, giving Pompey command against Mithridates and the Mediterranean pirates.

65—37—Curule Aedile, a magisterial post. Gives splendid public games.

64—38—Contest for the pontificate.

63—39—Elected Praetor, in charge of administration, and Pontifex Maximus, head of the Roman religion. In connection with his speech in the Senate in the debate on the conspiracy of Catiline incurs enmity of Cato. Cicero is Consul.

62—40—Praetor. Suspended by the Senate for opposition, but restored at once with an apology. Pompey returns from the east.

61—41—Propraetor, governor, in Further Spain. Beginning of military career with victories over the Lusitanians.

60—42—Elected consul, First Triumvirate formed, with Pompey and Crassus.

59—43—Consul with Bibulus, Marries Calpurnia, daughter of L. Calpurnius Piso. Appointed governor or Proconsul of Gallia Cisalpina, Gallia Narbonensis (Provincia), and Illyricum, for five years—March, 59, to February, 54 B.C. Caesar’s daughter Julia married to Pompey.

58—44—Helvetian and German campaigns. Cicero exiled.

57—45—Conquers the Belgae. Cicero is recalled.

56—46—Campaign in Brittany. Conference of the Triumvirs at Luca. Command prolonged five years, to end of February, 49 B.C.

55—47—Invades Britain. Pompey and Crassus consuls, for the second time.

54—48—Invades Britain a second time. Death of Julia.

53—49—The northeastern Gauls rebel. Crassus killed in action with the Parthians at Carrhae.

52—50—General revolt of the Gauls. Alienation of Pompey.

51—51—Completes the conquest of Gaul.

50—52—Quarrel between Caesar and the Senate. Disputes about Caesar’s command and second consulship.

49—53—Senate decrees that Caesar disband his army. He refuses. Meditation on the banks of the Rubicon. The die is cast! Civil war. Campaign in Spain. Is made Dictator I—for eleven days. Pompey abandons Italy.

48—54—Conquers Pompey at battle of Pharsalus in Thessaly. Flight of Pompey and his murder in Egypt. Caesar is nearly killed in the Alexandrian war. Consul II. Dictator II, till end of 46 B.C.

47—55—Conquers King Ptolemy, and settles the government of Egypt. Settlement of Asia Minor after victory at Zela over Pharnaces, King of Pontus (Veni, vidi, vici). Consul III. Dictator III for ten years. Returns to Rome in September, reorganizes the government.

46—56—The North African war. Metellus Scipio, Juba and the Pompeian army defeated at the battle of Thapsus. Returns to Rome in July. Sole Consul IV. Dictator IV. Reforms in administration and in the calendar.

45—57—The Spanish war. Victory of Munda over Pompey’s sons Gnaeus and Sextus and their army. Returns to Rome in September. Triumphs. Further honors and offices: Imperator for life, Consul for next ten years. Praefectus Morum for life. Pater Patriae.

44—58—Dictator for life. February 15th (Lupercalia) refused the crown. Conspiracy formed against him. Assassinated in the Senate, March 15th (Ides).

FOREWORD by Robert Hammond Murray

That Julius Caesar was a famous man;

With what his valor did enrich his wit,

His wit set down to make his valor live;

Death makes no conquest of this conqueror,

For now he lives in fame, though not in life.

CAESAR had been dead for a thousand years, plus thirty and eight when Shakespeare, not later than 1594, in Richard III placed these lines on the lips of the Prince of Wales. Each succeeding century has enlarged and affirmed the great Roman’s fame, not only as the dominator of Gaul, but for possessing and developing talents that elevated him to a permanent and extraordinarily lofty station among the indubitable giants of history. His personality, character and attainments were amazingly versatile. His genius was exercised and proved in almost every direction which offers humans opportunity and incitement to exercise their powers and demonstrate their worth. In the military field he is impressively and candidly self-revealed through the autobiographical record of his warring, observation and administration in Gaul. But also, to quote from the appraisal of one of the editors of Caesar’s seven books of commentaries upon the Gallic wars, Bennett:{1}

"He was general, statesman, orator and man of letters; and in each of these fields he displayed consummate genius. His military campaigns have evoked the admiration of masters of the art of war. His statesmanship brought order out of anarchy. As an orator he was magnetic. As a man of letters he has left us accounts of the Gallic and Civil wars, admirable for their directness and luminous simplicity of statement.

His essential qualities were those of a man of action—clearness of vision, promptness of decision, energy in execution and indefatigable perseverance. Needless cruelty and bloodshed at times stained his conduct, but these cannot obscure the greatness of his personality or essentially alter the measure of his achievements.

For the benefit of readers of this revised and modernized version of Caesar’s own story of his conquest of Gaul there has been brought together here sufficient material to complement it with relevant details of his personality and of salient events of his life and career.

In politics and polity Caesar rode the crest of epochal standards, degeneracy and corruptness, even to the degree of apparently complicating himself in the Catiline conspiracy which Thomson stigmatizes as the most horrible conspiracy that occurs in the history of human kind. This was in 62 B.C. Embittered by successive defeats for the office of consul by electoral trickery, Catiline plotted to gain the office by force, against Cicero, the incumbent, and the conservative party. His mistress betrayed the plot to Cicero, who denounced Catiline before the Senate. Many conspirators were executed. Catiline escaped this fate, only to be killed in battle a month later. In the judgment of Thomson,{2} who was one of the translators of Suetonius:

This was not the project of a few desperate and abandoned individuals, but of a number of men who were of most illustrious rank in the state; and it appears without doubt that Caesar was accessory to the design, which was no less than to extirpate the Senate, divide among themselves both the public and private treasuries and set Rome on fire. In the time of Caesar the barriers of public liberty had become weak to restrain the audacious efforts of ambitious and desperate men. The veneration for the constitution, usually a powerful check to treasonable designs, had lately been violated by the usurpations of Marius and Sulla. [Marius’ wife was an aunt of Caesar.] The salutary terrors of religion no longer predominated over the consciences of men. The shame of public censure was extinguished in general depravity.

Suetonius’ account of Caesar’s part in the Catiline conspiracy lacks factual precision, beyond an affirmation that he was named as amongst the accomplices of Catiline. Public suspicion would naturally fall upon him by his defense in the Senate of the conspirators, at least to the extent, to quote from The Columbia Encyclopedia, of making an impassioned and daring plea to a vindictive and ruthless majority that hated him, on behalf of a group of wretches whom he scorned. Caesar’s plea for moderation in the punishment of the conspirators was unheeded.

Bennett finds measurable justification for Caesar’s orientation, as a realist, of his conduct and policy in Roman politics, in consonance with the trend of the times, in the judgment that:

Caesar seems early to have recognized, which was undoubtedly true, that the existing constitution of Rome was no longer adequate for the new social and political conditions of the Roman people. The old order had been outgrown, and the existing political machinery was no longer adequate for present needs. In political convictions Caesar probably sympathized with neither of the two great parties of the Roman commonwealth. He saw the need of something larger than was contemplated by the political program of either. The aristocrats held tenaciously to the old order of things. The democratic party, while ready to tear down the old order, lacked the constructive capacity to replace the old with something better. Yet Caesar allied himself with the popular party, rightly persuaded that only thereby could he achieve the power at which his ambition aimed; hoping, too, perhaps, to supply a solution of the political problems of the times.

Caesar completed the conquest of Gaul in 51 B.C. But during the nine years in which this task engrossed him he remained closely and robustly in touch with politics and public affairs in Rome, so far as increasingly and sagely maintaining and demonstrating his powerful influence; and furthering his personal ambitions. Around 59 B.C. he formed a political alliance with Pompey, his son-in-law, and Crassus—the First Triumvirate—which for a time dominated the government and effectively accomplished not the least of its objects, the advancement of the political fortunes of the three.

Then the combination disintegrated. Crassus was killed in battle in 53 B.C. Julia, Caesar’s daughter, and the wife of Pompey, died. Quoting Bennett:

These two events aroused the latent rivalry between Pompey and Caesar, and stimulated their partizans to the keenest activity in behalf of these two leaders…The Senate, dominated by Pompey, espoused his cause and demanded that Caesar should disband his troops. Caesar refused. Early in 49 B.C., he crossed the Rubicon river, the southern boundary of his province of Cisalpine Gaul, and entered Italy at the head of his legions, thus precipitating civil war. [Between him and Pompey, as leaders.]

The struggle continued for several years. Caesar rapidly became master of Italy, and then followed Pompey to Greece, where against overwhelming odds he gained the brilliant victory of Pharsalus, in 48 B.C. Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was assassinated by order of the eunuch Pothinus, who was acting sovereign of the country. Arriving in Egypt in pursuit of Pompey, Caesar became involved in the Alexandrine war, caused by the strife for the throne between Ptolemy and his sister Cleopatra. Caesar settled Cleopatra on the throne, after which, in 47 B.C., he set out for Pontus [in Asia Minor] where Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates [the Persian], had defeated a Roman general and was endeavoring further to extend his power. He defeated Pharnaces at Zela, in the engagement which he reported in his famous despatch, "Vent, vidi, vici," after which he returned to Africa, and at Thapsus, Numidia, 46 B.C., defeated the remainder of the senatorial forces still in arms.

After these achievements he returned to Rome and addressed his attention to the restoration of public order and to the inauguration of needed reforms. Less than two years of life remained to him…Yet even in this brief period Caesar made vast progress in restoring public confidence and in relieving the condition of anarchy into which Rome had been plunged by civil war. He himself was appointed dictator at first for ten years, and later for life…The progress of these beneficent measures was interrupted by Caesar’s assassination in the entrance to Pompey’s theatre, March 15th, 44 B.C.

As his power soared to its zenith, in commensurate degree Caesar’s arbitrary arrogance kept pace. This fed the always present flame of opposition, especially among his untiring and industrious opponents, the ambitious and envious aristocrats, including many senators. There was much popular agitation in favor of making him king, which he rejected and discouraged. To his refusal of the crown, as an implication of negation of regal ambition, Shakespeare in his Julius Caesar causes Antony to testify, in his defense of Caesar’s acts and memory and his arraignment before the Senate of Caesar’s friend and murderer, Brutus: You all did see that…I thrice presented him a kingly crown which he did thrice refuse. Was this ambition?

Suetonius observes in his account of Caesar dismissing two tribunes for imprisoning a citizen who had placed a laurel crown, encircled with a white fillet, the latter being one of the insignia of royalty, upon a statue of Caesar:

Caesar, being much concerned, either that the idea of royalty had been suggested to so little purpose, or, as was said, that he was thus deprived of the merit of refusing it, reprimanded the tribunes very severely and dismissed them from their offices. From that day forward, he was never able to rid himself of the scandal of affecting the name of king, although he replied to the populace when they saluted him by that title: I am Caesar, and no king!…

A report was very current that he had a design of withdrawing to Alexandria, or Ilium, whither he purposed to transfer the imperial power, to drain Italy by new levies and to leave the government of the city to be administered by his friends. To this report it was added that in the next meeting of the Senate Lucius Cotta, one of the fifteen [appointed to inspect and expend the books of the Sibylline oracle] would make a motion that as there was in the Sibylline books a prophecy that the Parthians [strong Asiatic foes of Rome] would never be subdued but by a king, Caesar should have the title conferred upon him.

For this reason the conspirators [of whom most were Caesar’s friends and protégés] precipitated the execution of their design, that they might not be obliged to give their assent to the proposal…About sixty persons were engaged in the conspiracy, of whom Caius Cassius and Marcus and Decimus Brutus were the chief.

When he had taken his seat, the conspirators stood around him, under color of paying their compliments; and immediately Tullius Cimber, who had been engaged to commence the assault, advancing nearer than the rest, as if he had some favor to request, Caesar made signs that he should defer his petition to some other time. Tullius immediately seized him by the toga, on both shoulders; at which Caesar, crying out Violence is meant! one of the Cassii wounded him a little below the throat. Caesar seized him by the arm and ran it through with his stylus [an iron pen, broad at one end and sharp at the other, for writing upon wax tablets, etc.]; and endeavoring to rush forward was stopped by another wound.

Finding himself now attacked on all hands with naked poniards, he wrapped the toga about his head [the ancients in great extremities shrouded the face, to conceal show of horror or alarm which the countenance might express]; and at the same moment drew the skirt around his legs with his left hand, that he might fall more decently with the lower part of his body covered. He was stabbed with three and twenty wounds, uttering a groan only, but no cry, at the first wound; although some authors relate that when Marcus Brutus fell upon him he exclaimed: What! Art thou, too, one them? Thou, my son!

The whole assembly instantly dispersing, he lay for some time after he expired, until three of his slaves laid the body on a litter and carried it home, with one arm hanging over the side. Among so many wounds, there was none that was fatal, in the opinion of the surgeon Antistius, excepting the second, which he received in the breast.

It was a savage, filthy and unpopular crime—the assassination. Especially was it condemned and mourned among the Roman people, to whom he willed his garden and to each man 300 sesterces [about $15]. In hypocritical simulation of grief, so far as most of them were concerned, the aristocratic, venal, jealous senators led the official mourners at the elaborate public funeral rites, described by Suetonius:

Instead of a panegyric, the Consul Antony ordered a herald to proclaim the decrees of the Senate, in which the senators had bestowed upon him all honors, divine and human; with the oath by which they had engaged themselves for the defense of his person; and to these he added only a few words of his own. Magistrates and others who had formerly filled the highest offices, carried the bier into the Forum. While some proposed that the body should be burned in the sanctuary of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and others in Pompey’s Senate-house, suddenly two men, armed with swords and spears, fired the bier with lighted torches.

The throng immediately heaped upon it dry faggots, the tribunals and benches of the adjoining courts and whatever else came to hand. Then the musicians and players stripped off the dresses they wore, rent them and threw them into the flames. His veteran legionaries cast in their armor, which they had donned in his honor. Most of the women did the same with their ornaments and the bullae, [hollow golden or leathern globes worn by boys upon their breasts], and the mantles of their children. The populace ran from the funeral, with torches to fire the houses of Brutus and his fellow conspirator, Cassius. They afterwards erected in the Forum a column of Numidian marble, formed of one stone nearly twenty feet high, inscribed, To the Father of His Country. Here for a long time they continued to offer sacrifices, make vows and decide disputes, in which they swore by Caesar.

Suetonius has it that friends of Caesar believed that, although placed on the alert by omens and even more substantial warnings that his life was in danger, he held slight desire to live longer. He was in his fifty-eighth year, life had prodigaled upon him ultimate fame, fortune, accomplishment and gratification of ambition; his health had declined, with consequent toll upon his vigor and physical comfort. Probably he felt himself to be a tired, prematurely old man. So, as Suetonius puts it:

This, however, was generally admitted, that his death was in many respects such as he would have chosen. For…Caesar deprecated a lingering death, and wished that his own might be sudden and speedy. And the day before he died, the conversation at supper…turning upon what was the most eligible way of dying, he gave his opinion in favor of a death that is sudden and unexpected…Scarcely any of those who were accessory to his murder survived him more than three years or died a natural death. They were all condemned by the senate; some were killed by accident; part of them perished at sea, others fell in battle, while some [Brutus and Cassius] slew themselves with the same poinards with which they had stabbed Caesar.

But though thus struck down in his mature prime, Bennett notes that Caesar had accomplished the task his lofty genius had set itself. He had put an end to the disorders which had been practically incessant at Rome for two generations, a condition which, as he truly saw, was the result of an antiquated political system that had long since served its day. In place of disorder, he paved the way for a stable centralized government, the Empire, destined to bless the world with more than two centuries of better government than any considerable portion of it had ever enjoyed for an equal length of time. That was his great service to civilization and to mankind.

It was innate that Caesar should do most of what he did in connection with his public career, political and military, in the grand manner. Here he was preeminently and profitably, so far as striving successfully to gain popular support and following, the magnifico, superabundantly gifted with attributes. At times his acts and public utterances very humanly fell little short of demagogic. He omitted no opportunity of gaining universal favor by acts of liberality and kindness to individuals, both in private and public, Suetonius writes, and continues:

With money raised from the spoils of war he began to construct a new forum, the ground for which cost him above a hundred million sesterces [approximately $4,000,000]. He promised the people a public entertainment of gladiators and a feast, in memory of his daughter, such as no one before him had ever given…He doubled the pay of the legions in perpetuity, allowing them likewise grain, when it was in plenty, without restriction; sometimes distributing to every soldier in his army a slave and a portion of land. Every person about him, and a great part likewise of the Senate, he secured by loans of money at low interest or none at all. To all others who came to wait on him, either by invitation or of their own accord, he made liberal presents; not neglecting even the freedmen and slaves who were favorites with their patrons and masters. He also offered singular and ready aid to all who were under prosecution or in debt, and to prodigal youths, excluding from his bounty only those who were so deeply plunged in guilt, poverty or luxury that it was impossible effectively