Climate Change Challenges and Adaptations at Farm-level: Case Studies from Asia and Africa

This book emphasis the role of farm level adaptation as a key in developmental pathways that are challenged by climate risks in the semi-arid tropics of Asia and Africa. It throws light on key issues that arise in farm level impacts, adaptation and vulnerability to climate change and discusses Q2 methodological approaches undertaken in study domains of Asia and Africa. The book systematically describes the perceptions, aspirations as elicited/voiced by the farmers and identifies determinants of adaptation decisions. Chapters identify constraints and opportunities that are translated into indicative intervention recommendations towards climate resilient farm households in the semi-arid tropics of Asia and Africa. Furthermore, it discusses with evidences that contributes to the development of livelihood strategy for poor farmers in Asia (Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam and China) and Africa (Burkina Faso, Niger, Kenya and Ghana).

• Language: English
• Publisher: CAB International
• Release date: Nov 25, 2015
• ISBN: 9781780648781

Book preview

Climate Change Challenges and Adaptations at Farm-level

Case Studies from Asia and Africa

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CABI CLIMATE CHANGE SERIES

Climate change is a major environmental challenge to the world today, with significant threats to ecosystems, food security, water resources and economic stability overall. In order to understand and research ways to alleviate the effects of climate change, scientists need access to information that not only provides an overview of and background to the field, but also keeps them up to date with the latest research findings.

This series addresses many topics relating to climate change, including strategies to develop sustainable systems that minimize impact on climate and/or mitigate the effects of human activity on climate change. Coverage will encompass all areas of environmental and agricultural sciences. Aimed at researchers, upper-level students and policy makers, titles in the series provide international coverage of topics related to climate change, including both a synthesis of facts and discussions of future research perspectives and possible solutions.

Titles Available

1.   Climate Change and Crop Production

Edited by Matthew P. Reynolds

2.   Crop Stress Management and Climate Change

Edited by José L. Araus and Gustavo A. Slafer

3.   Temperature Adaptation in a Changing Climate: Nature at Risk

Edited by Kenneth Storey and Karen Tanino

4.   Plant Genetic Resources and Climate Change

Edited by Michael Jackson, Brian Ford-Lloyd and Martin Parry

5.   Climate Change Impact and Adaptation in Agricultural Systems

Edited by Jürg Fuhrer and Peter J. Gregory

6.   Livestock Production and Climate Change

Edited by Pradeep K. Malik, Raghavendra Bhatta, Junichi Takahashi, Richard A. Kohn and Cadaba S. Prasad

7.   Climate Change and Insect Pests

Edited by Christer Björkman and Pekka Niemelä

8.   Climate Change and Agricultural Water Management in Developing Countries

Edited by Chu Thai Hoanh, Vladimir Smakhtin and Robyn Johnston

9.   Climate Change Challenges and Adaptations at Farm-level

Edited by Naveen Prakash Singh, Cynthia Bantilan, Kattarkandi Byjesh and Swamikannu Nedumaran

Climate Change Challenges and Adaptations at Farm-level

Case Studies from Asia and Africa

___________________

Edited by

Naveen Prakash Singh

Cynthia Bantilan

Kattarkandi Byjesh

Swamikannu Nedumaran

International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru, Hyderabad, India

CABI is a trading name of CAB International

© CAB International 2015. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically, mechanically, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owners.

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library, London, UK.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Climate change challenges and adaptations at farm-level : case studies from Asia and Africa / edited by Naveen P. Singh, Cynthia Bantilan, Kattarkandi Byjesh and Swamikannu Nedumaran (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru, Hyderabad, India).

pages cm. -- (CABI climate change series ; 9)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-78064-463-9 (alk. paper)

1. Climatic changes--Asia--Case studies.  2. Climatic changes--Africa--Case studies. 3. Climate change mitigation--Asia--Case studies. 4. Climate change mitigation--Africa--Case studies. I. Singh, N. P. (Naveen P.), editor. II. Series: CABI climate change series ; 9.

QC903.C5523 2015

363.738’74095--dc23

2015029405

ISBN-13: 978 1 78064 463 9

Commissioning editor: Nicki Dennis

Editorial assistant: Emma McCann

Production editor: Tim Kapp

Typeset by AMA DataSet Ltd, Preston, UK.

Printed and bound in the UK by Antony Rowe, CPI Group (UK) Ltd.

Contents

Contributors

Foreword

Preface

Acknowledgements

SECTION I FRAMEWORK FOR ADDRESSING CLIMATE CHANGE

1    Climate Change Vulnerability and Adaptation Strategies at Farm-level: A Retrospection

N.P. Singh, K. Byjesh and C. Bantilan

2    Analytical Framework and Methodologies for Analysing Farm-level Vulnerability

N.P. Singh, K. Byjesh, C. Bantilan, V.U.M. Rao, S. Nedumaran, B. Venkateswarulu, F. Niranjan, W. Jayatilaka, U.K. Deb, P.Q. Ha and P. Suddhiyam

SECTION II EVALUATING IMPACTS AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE

3    What’s in Store for Asia: Making Sense of Changes in Climate Trends

N.P. Singh, K. Byjesh, C. Bantilan, V.U.M. Rao, B. Venkateswarulu, F. Niranjan, W. Jayatilaka, U.K. Deb, P.Q. Ha and P. Suddhiyam

4    Changing Climate – Responding to the Inevitable

N.P. Singh, K. Byjesh, C. Bantilan, V.U.M. Rao, B. Venkateswarulu, F. Niranjan, W. Jayatilaka, U.K. Deb, P.Q. Ha and P. Suddhiyam

5    Climate Change and Food Security in Asia and Africa: Agricultural Futures

S. Nedumaran, P. Jyosthnaa, N.P. Singh, C. Bantilan and K. Byjesh

6    Evaluating Adaptation Options at Crop Level for Climate Change in the Tropics of South Asia and West Africa

Piara Singh, N.P. Singh, S. Nedumaran and C. Bantilan

7    Scoping Climate Change Adaptation Strategies for Smallholder Farmers in East Africa – A Multi-dimensional, Multi-scenario Impact Assessment

L. Claessens, J.M. Antle, J.J. Stoorvogel, R.O. Valdivia, P.K. Thornton and M. Herrero

8    Sustainable Land and Water Management Approaches in Sub-Saharan Africa: Farm-level Analysis of Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation from Sub-Saharan Africa

Jupiter Ndjeunga, Marou A. Zarafi, Albert Nikiema, P.S. Traore, Abdou Amani, Sabiou Mahamane, A.M. Ibro, Souleymane Amadou and Ephraim Nkonya

9    Sociological Significance: Enhancing Resilience to Climate Change Among Communities

N.P. Singh, C. Bantilan, W. Jayatilaka and R. Padmaja

10  Policy Options Towards Climate Resilience: Agent-based Assessment of Farm Households in West Africa

T. Wossen, S. Nedumaran and T. Berger

SECTION III LOOKING BEYOND AND PLANNING FOR THE FUTURE

11  Moving Along Adaptation Pathways Toward Grass-root Resilience: A Synthesis

N.P. Singh, C. Bantilan, K. Byjesh, S. Nedumaran, V.U.M. Rao, B. Venkateswarulu, F. Niranjan, W. Jayatilaka, U.K. Deb, P.Q. Ha and P. Suddhiyam

12  Way Forward – Towards Climate Resilience

N.P. Singh, C. Bantilan, K. Byjesh and S. Nedumaran

Contributors

Abdou Amani, Senior Scientist, Forest Ecologist, Institut National de la Recherche Agricole du Niger (INRAN), PO Box 429 Niamey, Niger. E-mail: [e-mail]

John Antle, Professor, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA. E-mail: [e-mail]

Souleymane Amadou, Forest Ecologist, Direction Départementale de l’Environnement et de la Lutte Contre la Désertification (DDE/LCD), Ministry of Environment and Fight Against Desertification. E-mail: [e-mail]

Cynthia Bantilan, Director (RP-MIP), International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Hyderabad, Telangana, India. E-mail: [e-mail]

Thomas Berger, Professor, Institute of Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences in the Tropics and Subtropics, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany. E-mail: [e-mail]

Kattarkandi Byjesh, Consultant, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Hyderabad, Telangana, India. E-mail: [e-mail]

Lieven Claessens, Principal Scientist, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Kenya, East Africa. E-mail: [e-mail]

Uttam Kumar Deb, Principal Scientist, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Hyderabad, Telangana, India. E-mail: [e-mail]

Pham Quang Ha, Deputy Director General, Institute for Agricultural Environment (IAE), VAAS, Phu Do, TuLiem, Hanoi, Vietnam. E-mail: [e-mail]

Mario Herrero, Chief Research Scientist, CSIRO, Brisbane, Australia. E-mail: mario. [e-mail]

Mada Ibro, Former Scientific Officer, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), PO Box 12404 Niamey, Niger. E-mail: [e-mail]

Wijaya Jayatilaka, Consultant – Sociologist, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Hyderabad, Telangana, India. E-mail: [e-mail]

Padmanabhan Jyosthnaa, Scientific Officer, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Hyderabad, Telangana, India. E-mail: [e-mail]

Sabiou Mahamane, Senior Scientist, Soil scientist/Pedologist, Institut National de la Recherche Agricole du Niger (INRAN), PO Box 429 Niamey, Niger. E-mail: [e-mail]

Jupiter Ndjeunga, Principal Scientist, Agricultural Economist, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), PO Box 12404 Niamey, Niger. E-mail: [e-mail]

Swamikannu Nedumaran, Scientist (Economics), International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Hyderabad, Telangana, India. E-mail: [e-mail]

Albert Nikiema, Agro-forester, formerly of International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), now Forestry Officer at the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Forestry Department, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy. E-mail: [e-mail]

Frank Niranjan, Scientist, Sri Lanka Council for Agricultural Research Policy, Colombo, Sri Lanka. E-mail: [e-mail]

Ephraim Nkonya, Senior Research Fellow, Agricultural Economist, International Food Policy Research Institute, 2033 K Street, NW Washington, 20006, USA. E-mail: [e-mail]

Ravula Padmaja, Senior Scientist, Gender Research, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Hyderabad, Telangana, India. E-mail: [e-mail]

V Uma Maheshwara Rao, Project Coordinator (Agro-meteorology), Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, Telangana, India. E-mail: [e-mail]

Naveen Prakash Singh, Formerly Senior Scientist (Economics), International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Hyderabad, Telangana, India. E-mail: [e-mail]. Presently, Principal Scientist, ICAR - National Institute of Agricultural Economics and Policy Research (NIAP). Email: [e-mail]

Piara Singh, Consultant, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Hyderabad, Telangana, India. E-mail: [e-mail]

Jetse Stoorvogel, Associate Professor, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 47, 6700AA Wageningen, The Netherlands. E-mail: [e-mail]

Pornparn Suddhiyam, Department of Agriculture, Bangkok, Thailand. E-mail: [e-mail]

Tran Van The, Head, Department of Sciences and International Cooperation, IAE, Phu Do, TuLiem, Hanoi, Vietnam. E-mail: [e-mail]

Philip Thornton, Principal Scientist, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Nairobi, Kenya. E-mail: [e-mail]

Sibiry Traore, Regional Scientist, GIS Specialist, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), PO Box 320 Bamako, Mali. E-mail: [e-mail]

Robert Valdivia, Professor, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA. E-mail: [e-mail]

Bandi Venkateswarulu, Former Director, Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, Telangana, India. E-mail: [e-mail]

Tesfamichael Wossen, Post-Doctoral Fellow – Impact Assessment, CIAT, Hanoi, Vietnam. E-mail: [e-mail]

Marou Assane Zarafi, Director of INRAN Kollo Station, Senior Scientist, Socio-Economist, Institut National de la Recherche Agricole du Niger (INRAN), PO Box 329 Niamey, Niger. E-mail: [e-mail]

Foreword

Climate change is occurring and its effects are already being felt. Climate change will have an impact on several sectors including agriculture, fisheries and water on which the world’s population depends for their sustenance. The full impact is imminent, irrespective of the geographical distribution, and is going to be severe. The urgent need is to address the question of who are highly vulnerable and are immediately at risk, as the critically affected population requires attention and targeting to improve their capacity to overcome the associated risks. Until recently, most scientific assessments on climate change impacts, adaptation and resilience focused on the macro or regional level, with concentration on agriculture production, food supply, natural resource sustainability especially in Asia and Africa, and with less consideration at the community and farm household level.

This book is a compendium of studies on climate change challenges and adaptations at the farm level, capturing research carried out across the continents of Asia and Africa. This was spearheaded under the auspices of ICRISAT, along with partners and like-minded organizations, globally contributing to the research paradigm of improving resilience among the farming communities in the semi-arid tropics region. It primarily features the key findings of a pioneering initiative supported by the Asian Development Bank on ‘Vulnerability to Climate Change: Adaptation Strategies and Layers of Resilience’, encompassing vulnerable target domains in Asia. It also captures key findings from equally important initiatives in sub-Saharan Africa (Ghana and Niger in West and Central Africa) and Kenya in East and Southern Africa.

The book reiterates that climate change adaptation and mitigation are a practical necessity, as well as a moral imperative at the grass-roots level: farm, household and community – as they significantly affect agriculture. The people who are bearing the brunt of the effects of climate change are those who can least afford to do so. The identification of adaptation strategies and layers of resilience at the grass-roots level is viewed as an essential step in addressing vulnerability to climate change (water scarcity, drought, desertification, land degradation and further marginalization of rain-fed areas). Research was envisioned to provide science-based solutions and approaches to adapt agricultural systems to climate change for the benefit of the rural poor and the most vulnerable farmers in the semi-arid regions of Asia and Africa. Moreover, climate experts have been able to identify the causal factors influencing changes in productivity – attributing them to both climate change and instability – and used this information to diagnose what needs to be done to manage or reverse the alarming trends observed in recent decades, which may render planet earth uninhabitable in the long-term. The diagnosis will enable the prioritization of sectors most at risk and the development of equitable adaptation and mitigation strategies as an integral part of agricultural development programmes in more vulnerable regions. The initiatives have generated a useful road map and a policy matrix to inform policy decisions on critical issues affecting the future of agriculture and livelihoods in the rain-fed semi-arid tropical region. Hence, the micro-level research findings are an essential tool that guides policy making on all issues ranging from agriculture, health, industry, pollution control, global warming and sustainability issues in the face of climate change, fluctuations and extreme events.

The vital role that institutions such as ICRISAT plays, is in guiding research partners and policy makers towards integrating agricultural science with the economic, social and environmental dimensions of development, taking into account farm-household level evidence-based insights. ICRISAT declared a ‘Hypothesis of Hope’ on climate change and vulnerability by stating, ‘how farming systems cope with current rainfall variation is likely to yield important clues for adapting to future climate change’. ICRISAT believes that the gap between the farmers’ yield and achievable potential yield can be effectively bridged to ensure food production and sustainable livelihoods for the farmers. The approach includes integrating the adoption of climate-resilient crops and best practice soil, water and nutrient management strategies, along with supporting policies and institutions. Emerging science tools such as remote sensing, modeling and conventional natural resource management technologies will have to be harnessed, together with social and policy interventions to achieve the desired results.

A grass-roots approach is vital where the community is an active partner in learning, finding solutions and jointly adapting best practices that work for them. People will do what they finally decide is good for them. The technology, tools and methods we develop for the farmers have to be ultimately accepted and owned by them however informal or crude their evaluation may be. From the scientific research side, a grass-roots perspective and understanding of the context in which farmers live and manage their livelihoods is equally important. Keen observation and documentation of farm-household behaviour and responses in the villages as well as examining issues and variance of farmer realities enhanced the objectivity of results and priorities. Greater effort was spent on examining what is happening, listening and learning from the women and men, young people, families and communities in the marginalized and most vulnerable sector.

Recognizing the importance of capturing grass-roots level reality, responses and coping mechanisms, ICRISAT streamlined its research agenda on the semi-arid tropics and other vulnerable areas to draw attention to grass-roots adaptation to climate change and vulnerability. Our partners, the participating countries, were first to recognize that research findings must find their way to policy and development protocols. There is a need for champions, or strong advocates, among individuals and collectives, to break the institutional structures and processes that may be acting as barriers to change. The motto, ‘Act Now, Act Together and Act Differently’, draws from the synthesis of grass-roots level experience with an inclusive and sustainable orientation. Identifying the causes and what needs to be done to mitigate and adapt to climate change is a relatively easier task. The bigger challenge is to make sure that the changes recommended based on research findings are actually accepted, adopted and implemented.

William Dar

Former Director General

International Crops Research Institute for the semi-arid tropics (ICRISAT)

Patancheru, Hyderabad

Preface

In response to increasing concerns on the impact of climate change on the farming and livelihood of smallholder farmers in Asia and Africa, there is a consensus among the international community to focus on research and development activities towards a climate-resilient environment. In the direction of this effort, quantifying the impacts, vulnerability and efforts to streamline the adaptation options, and their efficiency and advocacy at the micro-level, several development agencies, the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) through the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) had prioritized their resources and investment in the area of climate change research. Substantial investments are channelled by the national governments and development agencies in Asia and Africa to sustain productivity to conserve natural resources, efficiently adapt farming against climate change and thereby protect livelihood and food security.

This book will definitely serve as a valuable reference for development practitioners, academics, researchers, agricultural scientists, etc. who are interested in the topic of climate change and its consequences. The experiences from the two continents are discussed in detail in this volume. Both quantitative and qualitative approaches adopted in understanding the impacts, adaption options and vulnerability both at crop and household level are highlighted.

Acknowledgements

This compendium of studies from Asia and Africa is an outcome of the studies carried out in these regions at the International Crops Research Institute of the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRI-SAT) along with project partners. The research was spearheaded by the Research Program on Markets, Institutions and Policies (RP-MIP) at ICRISAT with financial support from the Asian Development Bank. We are indebted to William Dar, Former Director General and other scientific, technical and administrative staff of ICRISAT for their help and cooperation at each and every stage of project execution. We are also thankful to all reviewers who reviewed this manuscript and gave critical comments that helped in improving this book.

1  Climate Change Vulnerability and Adaptation Strategies at Farm-level: A Retrospection

N.P. Singh,* K. Byjesh and C. Bantilan

International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Hyderabad, India

Abstract

This chapter introduces current and future climatic implication on national, regional and sub-regional agro-socio-economy. It focuses on the growing recognition of the climate change studies that are being considered inevitable. Authors argue that better understanding and assessment of adaptation and/or coping strategies at farm-level are prerequisite in the long-term development planning of the country or the region towards climate resiliency. The arguments were put forward to emphasize the vital link between agriculture, rural livelihoods and climate in the semi-arid tropics for the majority of the population in Asia and Africa. This chapter confines itself to various discourses on the past and present efforts on assessing impacts, adaptation and vulnerability to climate change particularly in the semi-arid tropics of Asia and Africa. It also discusses the global efforts on improving resilience against climatic risks in agricultural sector and also poor smallholder farmers of the semi-arid tropics. The chapter briefly reviews the current state of knowledge related to farmers’ strategies and determinants of decision in the choice of adaptation at farm-level. The chapter further discusses the organization of the book and also identifies potential uses of the book and the audience for whom this information is valuable.

1.1 Introduction

Adaptation is a vital part of a response to the challenge of climate change; it is the only means to reduce the now-unavoidable costs of climate change over the next few decades.

Sir Nicholas Stern, ‘The Stern Review’ on economics of climate change, October 2006

Climate change is emerging as the biggest threat to livelihood sustainability of our times, posing an imminent danger to human security and the development of human capabilities. Until recently, the centre of attention has been on the actual or potential impact of climatic change and mitigation options. The focus is now shifting to the ways that different socio-economic groups are attempting to cope and adapt to climate variability in particular and climate change in general. International developmental agencies are inclined towards improving their understanding of climate change science, impacts and mitigation of climate change at the global and regional levels (ADB, 2009). This focuses on the growing recognition that, while climate change is inevitable, its effects can be largely extenuated with better understanding of adaptation and undertaking coping strategies.

Global mean temperatures have been rising since the last century mainly owing to greenhouse gas accumulation orchestrated mostly by anthropogenic activities. The main causes are the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) to meet the increasing energy demand together with intensive agricultural production and deforestation. Along with temperature, the climate itself is perceived to be continuously changing all over the world. Due to its adverse impacts, climate change has always been a matter of great concern to the farming, scientific and developmental communities. Climatic extreme events to gether with an increase in rates of change in climatic parameters could affect various sectors including water, agriculture, health, tourism, transport, energy and the like. The Human Development Report (2008) states that climate change is one of the greatest challenges humanity faces and/or will be facing, and it is considered the world’s most vulnerable population who are immediately at risk. In the future, the climate change associated impacts are imminent with the anticipated vagaries of the weather. According to the Assessment Report 4, AR4 (IPCC, 2007) the projected changes are summarized as follows:

•   The surface air temperature increased worldwide and is greater at higher latitudes. Evidence of changes in natural ecosystems is being affected by regional climate changes, particularly temperature increases. Annual average temperature is projected to rise by 0.6–4.1°C by the end of this century.

•   There is an observed significant increase in precipitation in eastern parts of North and South America, Northern Europe, and Northern and Central Asia, but reduction in Sahel, the Mediterranean, Southern Africa and parts of South Asia.

•   It is likely that there will be an increase in extreme weather conditions, namely heat waves, heavy precipitation, cyclones, and very likely that precipitation will increase in higher latitudes and decrease in most subtropical land regions.

•   The water resource sector, owing to changes in rainfall and increased evapotranspiration, will be in crisis in major dry regions in mid-latitude, including the dry tropics. Thereby agriculture will be affected due to limited water availability. Africa and Asia, owing to a large population and low adaptive capacity, are projected to be highly vulnerable to climate change.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and various bodies have therefore defined both vulnerability and adaptation for better understanding of the relationships they share with climate change. The IPCC (2001) defines vulnerability as the degree to which the system is susceptible to, or unable to cope with, adverse effects of stresses including climate variability and extremes. Vulnerability is a function of the character, magnitude, and rate of climate change and variation to which a system is exposed, its sensitivity, and its ability to adapt or adaptive capacity. The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) states that vulnerability varies across geographical scales and temporal scales, and must be addressed within complex and uncertain conditions, and hence calls for interdisciplinary and multiple expertise (TERI, 2005). Adaptation, on the other hand, is defined by the IPCC (2001) as adjustments in ecological, social or economic systems in response to actual or expected stimuli and their effects or impacts. Hence, adaptation refers to changes in processes, practices and structures to moderate potential damages or to benefit from opportunities associated with climate change. On similar lines, the Department for International Development (DFID) defines adaptation as reducing the risks posed by climate change to people’s lives and livelihoods. Reducing vulnerability by an adaptation and mitigation process requires identification of different potential options that may be selected depending on the local contexts. It has been mentioned that ‘A wide array of adaptation options are available, but more extensive adaptation than is currently occurring is required to reduce vulnerability to climate change. There are barriers, limits and costs, which are not fully understood’ in the latest version of the synthesis report (IPCC, 2007). Nature, land, water and associated ecosystems are being degraded rapidly, undermining food security and rural livelihoods. The expected realm of environmental and socio-economic challenges in the future and the desperate attempt to protect available valuable natural resources are highly sought (Tompkins and Adger, 2004). The United Nations has called for a comprehensive framework for action through the high level task force on global food security and called for addressing the climatic impacts threatening future food and nutritional security (United Nations, 2011). The climate change processes and its effects are incremental and cumulative and affect the planet’s ability to sustain life. This has been a common problem, known for over half a century to the scientific elites, but not easily understood by common people, or the environmental activists or policy makers¹ were not really successful in mobilizing mass support to call for effective controls.

1.2 Climate Change: Riding through Poverty and Food Security

The developing countries, particularly in South and South-east Asian and African regions are the poorest, only having low to medium ranking in the human development index (HDI) except for Thailand and China (Human Development Report, 2008). Climate-related disasters affected about 2 billion people in Asia, representing about 40% of the total population in these countries (FAO, 2008). In the 2000s, Asian countries (India, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Vietnam) and African countries, for example Kenya, Ghana, Niger and Burkino Faso², have significant numbers of people affected by various climatological and hydrological disasters such as tsunami, cyclones, typhoons, flood, droughts, landslides and hurricanes among others.

Because agriculture is the mainstay of the majority of people in the region, any adverse impact on it will definitely affect their socio-economic well-being, increasing poverty and reducing food security. Impacts caused by climate-related risks affect directly the farming sector thereby threatening food security. Food security is affected in two areas: (i) by way of a diminished source of food supply and (ii) by reduced primary source of income. This is the case for around 40% of the world’s population and an estimated more than 65% of the Asian and African population. Hence, adverse impacts on the capacity of farmers to produce food will have profound effects on rural livelihoods and food insecurity. According to the latest developmental statistics, an average of 25–30% of the population are already below the poverty line (Table 1.1).

The rural poor are affected by several extraneous issues over the years that act against the improvement of their socioeconomic status. Among these factors, climate change or variability and associated changes have a direct impact. They also have indirect effects on rural livelihood and food security (Sanchez, 2000). Many scientists argue that the food-insecure countries face insecurity not due to diminishing production but due to disparity in accessibility to quality food (FAO, 2003). Global climate change projections now have a firm scientific basis, and there is a consensus among researchers of growing certainty that the frequency of occurrence of extreme events is most likely to rise (Table 1.2). This will lead to losses of productive assets, personal possessions, or even loss of life or livelihood. Low food security status of millions of people in disaster-prone areas of Asia will increase. The low income and most vulnerable populations are the ones who are expected to feel the effects of climate change, such as frequent incidence of extreme events and natural disasters. As a result, climate change is most likely to increase the vulnerability of poor farmers who are already struggling with land degradation, price hikes and other social risks (ADB, 2009).

A recent study by the International Labour Organization (ILO, 2011) suggests that there will be significant differences between middle- and low-income countries because of the way in which climate change affects agriculture-based livelihoods. Statistically, the phenomena of exodus of population from farm-based employment to non-agriculture are common globally in general and particularly in these continents. According to several studies, climate change would reduce crop productivity especially in tropics or lower latitudes, affecting the population associated with it directly or indirectly. A reduction in production will negatively impact on the farming sector, threatening food security and livelihood. In identifying these perils, there have been several scoping studies on impacts and the national and international initiatives against this challenge. The assessment of national action plans on climate change and the implementation of this plan is a plausible way forward on future prospects of adaptation strategies (Adaptation Knowledge Platform, 2010a, b).

Table 1.1. Developmental status of the study countries.

Table 1.2. Summary comparison of people under stress globally, in Asia and in Africa.

1.3 Climate Change and Micro-level Impacts

The international attention on the impact of climate change is of major concern among the stakeholders. Recognizing the impact is imminent and it is important to quantify and qualify how it affects different sectors, and also understand the ways that different socio-economic groups are attempting to cope and adapt to climate variability in particular and climate change in general. With a huge task of achieving the millennium development goals, climate change impact could cause things to go from bad to worse. This has resulted in a deliberate attempt by the international community to improve the understanding of climate science, impacts and mitigation and its discrepancies (ADB, 2009). Global mean temperatures have been rising since the last century, mainly by the accumulation of greenhouse gas emission to the atmosphere orchestrated majorly by anthropogenic activities. Along with temperature, the climate itself is perceived to be continuously changing all over the world. The Human Development Report (2008) states that climate change is one of the greatest challenges humanity faces and/or will be facing, and it is the world’s most vulnerable populations who are immediately at risk (Box 1.1).

The impacts of climate change would add an additional burden to the poor smallholder farmers of semi-arid tropics of India. The region is already hapless, with low soil productivity, rainfall variability, water shortage or scarcity, and poor development in rural infrastructure, institutions and markets being major identified characteristics of the semi-arid tropics (Shiferaw and Bantilan, 2004; Bantilan and Keatinge, 2007).

FAO (2008) identified different livelihood groups that needed special attention in the context of climate change and these include:

Box 1.1. Poverty and vulnerability to climate change goes hand in hand

The extreme climatic events and slow continuous change could be a major threat to the rural communities. The consequences could be direct and indirect, impacting on agriculture, nutrition, health, socio-economic condition and natural resource base.

1. Direct impact: Severe and frequent climatic extremes will put more into the vulnerable category or push them down the order by adopting the coping response strategy of selling/divestment of productive assets such as land or livestock.

2. Indirect: Climatic extremes or shocks make the price for essential